感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
What does the Visual Infusion Phlebitis (VIP) score assess?
In English law, giving a treatment to a competent adult who has clearly refused it may amount to:
A cup of water is spilled over an infusion pump plugged into the wall. What should the nurse do?
A nurse has just started a unit of red blood cells when a colleague asks for urgent help with another patient. What is the best action?
A patient is booked for a CT scan with iodinated contrast. Which of the patient’s medications may need to be held according to protocol?
A patient taking an MAO inhibitor antidepressant is taught about diet. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
Which group of symptoms suggests hypothyroidism?
A patient going home after chemotherapy is taught about infection. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A week after a splenectomy, a patient's platelet count is 650 × 10³/µL. What is the best interpretation?
A child with sickle cell disease and a recent viral illness is pale and tired. The hemoglobin has fallen sharply, and the reticulocyte count is very low. What is the most likely problem?
When does oseltamivir give the most benefit in influenza?
哪一对不良反应是长期使用胺碘酮的特征性表现?
Why is a non-selective beta-blocker such as propranolol usually avoided in a patient with asthma?
After a pneumonectomy, how is the patient usually positioned?
Why may a person with long-standing diabetes have a heart attack without typical chest pain?
A patient with myasthenia gravis is admitted with pneumonia. Which newly prescribed antibiotic should the nurse question?
麻醉期间,恶性高热最早的征象通常是什么?
一名肠梗阻患者出现持续剧烈疼痛(不再是绞痛)、发热、心率 120 次/分,以及腹部强直、压痛。这提示什么?
Why is it important that the uterus relaxes fully between contractions?
A woman with gestational diabetes on insulin asks about her baby after birth. Which statement by the nurse is accurate?
Ten minutes into a blood transfusion, a child develops fever, chills and back pain. What should the nurse do first?
A 5-year-old with leukaemia tells the nurse she is ill because she was naughty. What is the best response?
A patient taking phenelzine, an MAOI, is being taught before discharge. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A 50-year-old man has believed for a year that his wife is unfaithful. He works normally, his speech is organised and he has no hallucinations. Which diagnosis is most likely?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 18:15(24 小时制)。哪个条目是 12 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液½ tbsp,每天两次,共 10 天。按1 tbsp = 15 mL,整个疗程需要多少 mLV?
一个药瓶中含有 1 g 的粉末。标签上写着:加入 3.4 mL 注射用水,得到总容量 4 mL。医嘱为 750 mg。你应给予复溶后溶液的多少容量 V?
一名体重 20 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 20 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 100 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 4 小时内输入 1000 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
将 500 mg 药物稀释于 500 mL 中,通过滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。医嘱为每小时 40 mg。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份输液含普通胰岛素 100 单位,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 5 units/h。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dopamine 800 mg,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 6 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 105 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 13:30 开始用输液泵以 75 mL/h 输注。到 17:30 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 完全受限; 潮湿程度: 偶尔潮湿; 活动: 经常步行; 活动能力: 非常受限; 营养: 非常差; 摩擦力和剪切力: 潜在问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 团队的目标是平均动脉压至少为 65 mmHg。一位患者的收缩压为 111 mmHg。使用 MAP = (SBP + 2·DBP)/3,仍能使 MAP 达到 65 mmHg 的最低舒张压DBP是多少?
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.38,PaCO₂ 30 mmHg (4.0 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 17 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.31,PaCO₂ 29 mmHg (3.9 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 14 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
测量这条 II 导联心电图上的QT 间期,以秒为单位。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
答案: D · The cannula site for signs of phlebitis
The VIP score grades pain, redness, swelling and hardening along the vein. A rising score tells the nurse when the cannula must be removed.
答案: B · Battery (trespass to the person)
Touching or treating a person without valid consent can be battery, even if the treatment was meant to help. This is why consent is needed before care.
答案: A · Switch it off and unplug it safely, then have it checked before reuse
Liquid on electrical equipment can cause shock or failure. The device is turned off and unplugged without touching wet parts, the patient’s infusion is managed with another device, and the pump is checked by the biomedical team.
答案: A · Stay with the transfusing patient for the first 15 minutes and ask another nurse to help
The most serious reactions, such as acute hemolytic reactions and anaphylaxis, usually start within the first 15 minutes. The nurse stays with the patient during this time and finds another person to help elsewhere.
答案: C · Metformin
If contrast causes kidney injury, metformin can build up and cause lactic acidosis. Protocols often hold metformin around the procedure, especially when kidney function is reduced.
答案: D · “I can still eat aged cheese and cured salami.”
MAO inhibitors with tyramine-rich foods, such as aged cheese and cured meats, can cause a hypertensive crisis. Patients avoid these foods, check medicines with a pharmacist and report a severe headache.
答案: D · Tiredness, weight gain and feeling cold
Low thyroid hormone slows metabolism, causing fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, constipation, dry skin and bradycardia. Weight loss, heat intolerance and tremor suggest hyperthyroidism.
答案: C · "If I get a temperature, I'll take paracetamol and wait until my next clinic."
A fever after chemotherapy may be neutropenic sepsis, which needs urgent assessment and antibiotics. Patients should call the oncology helpline straight away rather than masking the fever with paracetamol (acetaminophen).
答案: D · An expected rise after splenectomy that increases clot risk
The spleen stores about a third of the platelets. After splenectomy, the count often rises (reactive thrombocytosis), which can increase the risk of thrombosis. The count is monitored, and the patient is assessed for signs of clots.
答案: B · An aplastic crisis, often caused by parvovirus B19
Patients with sickle cell disease depend on a high reticulocyte count because their red cells live only a short time. Parvovirus B19 can stop red cell production for days, causing a rapid fall in hemoglobin with very low reticulocytes. Transfusion may be needed.
答案: C · When started within 48 hours of the first symptoms
Neuraminidase inhibitors work best early, while the virus is multiplying. Started within 48 hours, they shorten illness; in high-risk or hospitalised patients they may still be given later.
答案: A · 甲状腺功能异常和肺纤维化
胺碘酮富含碘并在组织中蓄积,可引起甲状腺功能减退或亢进、肺纤维化、肝损伤、光敏感和角膜沉积。其他几对分别符合氨基糖苷类、苯妥英和 ACE 抑制剂。
答案: D · It can cause bronchospasm by blocking beta-2 receptors
Beta-2 receptors in the airways mediate bronchodilation. Blocking them can trigger severe bronchospasm in asthma and also blunts the effect of salbutamol. Cardioselective beta-1 blockers are safer but still used with caution.
答案: C · On the back or the operated side, not fully on the remaining lung
After a pneumonectomy, the remaining lung needs room to expand, and the mediastinum must not shift. Patients usually lie on their back or on the operated side, semi-upright. Lying fully on the non-operated side can compress the remaining lung. Chest drains, if present, are managed per surgical instructions.
答案: C · Nerve damage can blunt the pain signals
Autonomic neuropathy can make a myocardial infarction "silent" or atypical, with breathlessness, fatigue, nausea or sweating rather than chest pain. A low threshold for an ECG is needed.
答案: C · Gentamicin
Aminoglycosides such as gentamicin can impair neuromuscular transmission and trigger a myasthenic crisis. Fluoroquinolones, magnesium and some other drugs carry similar warnings. The nurse checks with the prescriber before giving it.
答案: B · 呼气末 CO₂ 无法解释地升高
恶性高热是对挥发性麻醉药和琥珀酰胆碱的遗传性反应。早期征象包括呼气末 CO₂ 升高、心动过速和肌肉强直(常为咬肌);高热往往是晚期征象。治疗是停用触发药物并给予丹曲林。
答案: C · 绞窄或穿孔,需要紧急外科评估
疼痛从绞痛变为持续性疼痛,伴发热、心动过速、腹膜刺激征或乳酸升高,提示缺血(绞窄)或穿孔。这是外科急症。机械性梗阻禁用泻药。
答案: A · Blood flow to the placenta is restored between contractions
During contractions, blood flow to the intervillous space falls. Relaxation between contractions restores oxygen delivery to the fetus. Short rest periods, as in tachysystole, can cause fetal hypoxia.
答案: C · The baby's glucose will be checked for hypoglycaemia
Babies of mothers with diabetes may have high insulin levels after birth, causing hypoglycaemia. Early, frequent feeding, often skin-to-skin, and glucose monitoring per protocol are standard.
答案: C · Stop the transfusion
Fever, chills and back pain early in a transfusion may signal an acute haemolytic reaction. The transfusion is stopped, the line kept open with saline using new tubing, vital signs checked, the doctor called and the blood bag kept for testing.
答案: B · Reassure her clearly that nothing she did or thought made her ill
Preoperational children use magical thinking and may believe illness is a punishment for bad behaviour or thoughts. Clear, repeated reassurance in simple language reduces guilt and fear.
答案: A · "I can take any cold and flu remedy from the pharmacy."
Decongestants such as pseudoephedrine are sympathomimetics and can cause a hypertensive crisis with MAOIs. Patients should check any new medicine, including over-the-counter remedies, with a pharmacist or prescriber.
答案: C · Delusional disorder
Delusional disorder involves one or more delusions for at least 1 month, without other prominent symptoms of schizophrenia, and functioning is not markedly impaired apart from the effects of the delusion. Jealous delusions are one recognised type.
答案: 6:15 PM
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 150 mL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 3 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: V = 20 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 63 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:63 滴/分。
答案: R = 40 gtt/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 12.5 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 23.6 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 645 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: V = 700 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 13
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: DBP = 42 mmHg
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
临床上还应检查预期代偿:按温特公式,预期 PaCO₂ 为 31.5–35.5 mmHg,所以实测 30 mmHg 提示合并呼吸性碱中毒(混合性紊乱)。上面的答案是按 ROME 法的考试分类。
答案: 适当的代偿
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: QT = 0.4 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
粗略的规则:在正常心率下,QT 应小于 R–R 间期的一半(此处 R–R = 0.84 s)。
答案: 心室颤动
室性节律:室性心动过速是连续三个或以上宽大(0.12 s 或以上)的波群,频率超过 100 次/分,通常为 150–250 次/分,节律规则,没有相关的 P 波。心室颤动是紊乱、不规则的波形,无法辨认 P 波、QRS 波群或 T 波,也没有可计数的频率。心脏停搏是几乎平直的线,没有心室活动;平直线一定要通过检查患者、导联和增益并换一个导联来确认。在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律,心脏停搏则不是。
在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律。这里只是识别练习。
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