感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A small blood spill is found on the ward floor. What is the correct approach?
A healthcare assistant (nursing assistant) has recorded a blood pressure of 82/50 mmHg during routine observations but did not report it. What should the registered nurse do first?
A small spill of blood is found on the floor. How should it be cleaned?
护士发现抽错了药,但在给药前发现了。护士应怎么做?
A patient receives hemodialysis this morning. Which type of medication is often held before dialysis, as prescribed?
在资源极其有限的灾难中,一名几乎全身严重烧伤的伤员被标为黑色。哪项原则解释了这个决定?
An arterial blood gas shows a low pH, a high PaCO2 and a normal bicarbonate. What does this show?
After a head injury, a patient passes very large volumes of dilute urine and the serum sodium is rising. What is most likely?
A pregnant woman's blood type is O Rh-negative, and her antibody screen (indirect Coombs test) is negative. What is usually offered at about 28 weeks?
一名新发深静脉血栓的患者正在使用肝素输注,华法林刚开始使用。为什么肝素要持续使用数日?
A woman taking the combined pill should seek care urgently for which symptom?
Why must several weeks pass before starting an MAO inhibitor after stopping fluoxetine?
A nurse measures blood pressure on a large upper arm using a cuff that is too small. What effect will this have?
A patient with both COPD and heart disease is more breathless, with bilateral basal crackles, raised JVP, ankle swelling and a markedly raised NT-proBNP. Which problem is most likely driving this episode?
A routine blood test shows a potassium of 6.4 mmol/L. The lab reports that the sample was haemolysed. The patient feels well. What should the nurse do?
一名颅内压升高的患者需要气管内吸痰。哪种做法最恰当?
Which is a recognised side effect of ondansetron?
外科病房有四位患者。护士应首先评估哪位患者?
下列哪一组列出了生物物理评分的组成部分?
A woman at 8 weeks takes valproate for epilepsy. She asks whether she should stop it. Which response is best?
A child weighs 20 kg. Which minimum urine output suggests adequate kidney perfusion?
Why does a child with juvenile idiopathic arthritis need regular eye examinations?
Which feature helps distinguish normal grief from major depression?
A patient with anxiety asks for her PRN lorazepam every time it is due. What is the best nursing approach?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 96.8 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液2 tsp,每天三次,共 10 天。按1 tsp = 5 mL,整个疗程需要多少 mLV?
一名体重 12 kg 的儿童按 2 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 10 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
你需要用 10%(w/v)储备液配制 500 mL 2%(w/v)溶液。 必须向储备液中加入多少水 W?
医嘱要求在 10 小时内输入 500 mL。8 小时后你发现袋中还剩 120 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
医嘱要求在 10 小时内输入 1500 mL。8 小时后你发现袋中还剩 320 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 原来的泵速必须提高百分之多少 Δ?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 71 kg 的患者推注肝素 60 units/kg。药瓶规格为 5 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dopamine 400 mg,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 12 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 56 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 72 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 150 mL/h 输注。到 19:00 时已输入 50 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 完全受限; 潮湿程度: 偶尔潮湿; 活动: 经常步行; 活动能力: 不受限制; 营养: 极好; 摩擦力和剪切力: 潜在问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名练习用新生儿出生后 1 分钟时:躯干粉红,手脚青紫,心率 85 次/分,刺激后无反应,四肢松软,没有肌张力,呼吸缓慢、不规则,哭声微弱。 为 Apgar 评分并点击该评分的解读。
练习数值:Na⁺ 132 mmol/L,葡萄糖 26.2 mmol/L,尿素 18.6 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
练习数值:Na⁺ 146,Cl⁻ 115,HCO₃⁻ 8 mmol/L。使用 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) 计算 Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻)。保留两位小数。
这条 II 导联心电图条带显示窦性心律伴一次停顿。测量 停顿,即跨越停顿的 R–R 间期,单位为秒。
这条 II 导联心电图显示房室传导阻滞,所以心房和心室以不同的频率搏动。QRS 波群是规则的:求出心室率(单位:次/分,1500 法,取整数)。
答案: C · Wear gloves and an apron and clean it with an approved disinfectant per policy
Under standard precautions all blood is handled as potentially infectious. Spills are cleaned promptly using PPE and the spill kit or disinfectant set out in local policy.
答案: C · Assess the patient straight away
A low blood pressure may mean deterioration, so the nurse assesses the patient at once and escalates if needed. Feedback to the assistant and reporting follow afterwards.
答案: A · Wear gloves, absorb the blood, then clean the area with an approved disinfectant
Blood spills are cleaned promptly by staff wearing gloves. The blood is absorbed with disposable material, then the area is cleaned and disinfected with a hospital disinfectant, and waste goes into clinical waste.
答案: C · 丢弃该药,准备正确的药物,并上报未遂事件
未遂事件暴露了系统的薄弱环节,如包装相似或存放方式不当。上报可以在患者受到伤害之前消除风险。公正文化支持这样的上报。
答案: A · Antihypertensive drugs
Removing fluid during dialysis can cause hypotension, so blood pressure drugs are often held before treatment as prescribed. Some drugs are also removed by dialysis and given afterwards.
答案: C · 为最多的人做最大的好事
在大规模伤亡事件中,资源用在能挽救最多生命的地方。即使给予全面治疗也不太可能存活的伤员接受安宁照护,而工作人员则救治可挽救的伤员。在日常分诊中,通常先看病情最重的患者。
答案: B · Respiratory acidosis
A raised PaCO2 with a low pH means the lungs are not removing enough CO2, for example from hypoventilation. A normal bicarbonate suggests it is acute.
答案: D · Diabetes insipidus
Cranial diabetes insipidus is a lack of ADH, so the kidneys cannot concentrate urine. Water loss raises sodium; strict fluid balance and replacement are needed.
答案: C · Anti-D immunoglobulin (Rho(D) immune globulin)
An Rh-negative mother can form anti-D antibodies if Rh-positive fetal blood enters her circulation, which can cause hemolytic disease in a later pregnancy. Anti-D immunoglobulin at about 28 weeks and after delivery of an Rh-positive baby prevents this sensitization.
答案: C · 华法林需要数日才能达到完全的抗凝效果
华法林阻断新的依赖维生素 K 的凝血因子的合成,但现有的因子可持续数日。因此肝素要重叠使用,直到 INR 在目标范围内,通常至少 24 小时,并且至少约 5 天之后。
答案: B · A painful, swollen calf or sudden chest pain
Combined hormonal contraception increases the risk of venous thromboembolism and, rarely, stroke. Leg pain or swelling, chest pain, breathlessness, severe headache or vision changes need urgent assessment.
答案: C · Fluoxetine and its active metabolite have very long half-lives
Norfluoxetine, the active metabolite of fluoxetine, stays in the body for weeks. A long washout is needed before an MAOI to avoid serotonin syndrome.
答案: D · The reading will be falsely high
A cuff that is too small needs a higher pressure to compress the brachial artery, giving a falsely high reading. A cuff that is too large can give a falsely low reading. The bladder should encircle most of the arm, so cuff size is chosen by arm circumference.
答案: C · Decompensated heart failure
Basal crackles, raised JVP, oedema and a high natriuretic peptide point to heart failure rather than a COPD exacerbation alone. Distinguishing them matters, because treatment (diuretics and HF drugs versus bronchodilators and steroids) is different. Both may occur together.
答案: D · Inform the doctor and arrange an urgent repeat sample
Haemolysis releases potassium from red cells and can falsely raise the result. A repeat sample is taken urgently, and an ECG may be done. If the ECG shows hyperkalaemic changes, treatment should not wait.
答案: B · 预先给氧,每次吸引时间要短,并限制吸引次数
吸痰通过咳嗽、低氧和高碳酸血症升高颅内压。仅在需要时进行,并预先给氧,每次不超过约 10–15 秒,次数要少,头部保持抬高并居中。有些病房可使用镇静或利多卡因。
答案: C · Constipation
Common side effects of ondansetron include constipation and headache. It can also prolong the QT interval, so caution is needed with other QT-prolonging drugs and electrolyte imbalance.
答案: B · 肠道手术后四小时:脉搏 118 次/分,血压 90/55 mmHg
术后早期出现心动过速伴低血压,提示出血或脓毒症,需要立即评估和上报。其他患者目前情况稳定,不过中性粒细胞减少的患者仍需要定期监测。
答案: C · 无应激试验、胎儿呼吸、胎动、胎儿肌张力和羊水量
五个组成部分各计 0 分或 2 分。总分 8–10 分令人放心;分数更低则需要进一步评估或制订分娩计划。
答案: B · Do not stop it suddenly; arrange urgent specialist review
Valproate is strongly teratogenic, but stopping antiepileptics suddenly can cause seizures that harm mother and fetus. She needs urgent specialist review to change treatment safely, ideally before conception.
答案: C · About 20 mL per hour
A urine output of at least about 1 mL/kg/hour is generally used as a sign of adequate perfusion in children; for 20 kg this is about 20 mL/hour. Lower output can signal dehydration, shock or kidney problems.
答案: A · Uveitis can develop without symptoms and damage vision
Children with JIA, especially some subtypes, can develop chronic anterior uveitis that causes no pain or redness at first. Regular slit-lamp screening allows early treatment and prevents vision loss.
答案: D · In grief, painful feelings come in waves and self-esteem is usually kept
In grief, sadness tends to come in waves linked to reminders of the loss, and positive memories and humour are possible. Pervasive worthlessness, self-loathing and hopelessness suggest depression.
答案: A · Assess her anxiety each time, offer other coping strategies and give it if indicated
Each PRN dose requires an assessment of need and an evaluation afterwards. Offering other strategies supports coping skills, and patterns of use are discussed with the team.
答案: T = 36 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 300 mL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 2.4 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: W = 400 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: R = 60 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: Δ = 6.667 %
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: V = 0.85 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 25.2 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 2 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 3 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 3 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 22:00 输完。
答案: B = 18
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 低
Apgar 评分:五项体征,每项评 0、1 或 2 分,在出生后 1 分钟和 5 分钟检查。外观(肤色):青紫或苍白 0 分,躯干粉红、四肢青紫 1 分,全身粉红 2 分。脉搏:无 0 分,低于 100 次/分 1 分,100 次/分或以上 2 分。反射(反射应激性):无 0 分,做鬼脸 1 分,哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏 2 分。肌张力(活动):松软 0 分,略有屈曲 1 分,活动活跃 2 分。呼吸:无 0 分,缓慢或不规则、哭声微弱 1 分,良好、哭声响亮 2 分。总分 7–10 为令人放心,4–6 为中度异常,0–3 为低。
答案: Osm = 309 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: Δ 比值 = 0.6875
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
低于 1:合并正常阴离子间隙酸中毒。
答案: 停顿 = 1.84 s
窄 QRS 心动过速与停顿:室上性心动过速(SVT)是规则的心动过速,约 150–250 次/分钟,QRS 波群较窄;P 波通常看不到,因为它们隐藏在 QRS 波群或 T 波中。成人静息时的窦性心动过速通常低于约 150 次/分钟,且每个 QRS 前都有可见的 P 波;伴 2:1 传导的心房扑动常在约 150 次/分钟,并显示锯齿波。窦性停搏是指窦房结暂时停止发放冲动:出现既无 P 波也无 QRS 的停顿,其长度不是 P–P 周期的整数倍(恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞)。
停顿中没有出现 P 波,且停顿不是 P–P 周期的整数倍:窦性停搏。恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞。
答案: 心室率 = 34 bpm
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
三度阻滞,伴宽 QRS 室性逸搏(通常为 20–40 次/分)。
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