感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
When should blood cultures be taken in a patient with suspected sepsis?
A patient reports pain of 8/10 but is chatting calmly and has normal vital signs. What should the nurse do?
A patient with a respiratory infection has a raised procalcitonin level. What does this most suggest?
A patient restrained because of violent behavior is now calm, oriented and following instructions. What should the nurse do?
A patient had a colostomy formed yesterday. Which stoma appearance should be reported straight away?
一名头部受伤并伴有腿部骨折的患者正在接受监测。哪项发现是优先事项?
After a needlestick injury from a patient known to have HIV, why must the nurse report it immediately?
A nurse teaches a patient with asthma about a new inhaled steroid "preventer". Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A patient with chronic kidney disease has a magnesium of 3.8 mEq/L (1.9 mmol/L). Which product is the most likely cause?
Four results arrive at the same time. Which patient should the nurse see first?
A man takes finasteride. What should be explained about handling the tablets?
A patient taking long-term hydroxychloroquine for lupus is advised to have regular eye examinations. Why?
A patient is going home with a 24-hour Holter monitor. Which instruction is most important?
Two adults with cystic fibrosis are admitted to the same ward. What is the correct infection-control plan?
Which CSF result is most typical of bacterial meningitis?
A patient in thyroid storm has a temperature of 40 °C (104 °F). Which measure for the fever is usually avoided?
Which rule about the sterile field is correct?
一名肠梗阻患者出现持续剧烈疼痛(不再是绞痛)、发热、心率 120 次/分,以及腹部强直、压痛。这提示什么?
A woman at 24 weeks reports burning on urination and urinary frequency. What is the priority action?
产后第 4 天,一位母亲说她听到有声音告诉她她的孩子是邪恶的。首要措施是什么?
What should the nurse do before giving a dose of digoxin to an infant?
一名已经学会如厕的 3 岁儿童在住院期间开始尿床。家长很担心。护士应怎么说?
关于用于焦虑的丁螺环酮,哪项说法是正确的?
A patient with schizophrenia has marked negative symptoms. He stays in bed most of the day and neglects his hygiene. Which nursing approach is most helpful?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 16:40(24 小时制)。哪个条目是 12 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 20:45 开始,到次日早晨 07:10 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少分钟t?
某患者体重 15 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 20 mg/kg,分 3 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
处方剂量为 0.54 mg。安瓿每 mL 含 1000 微克。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 20 滴/mL 的输液器在 4 小时内输入 1000 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一组输液以 28 滴/分的速度经 20 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 450 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 98 kg 的患者推注肝素 70 units/kg。药瓶规格为 5 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dobutamine 500 mg,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 12.5 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 69 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 55 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体于 08:30 开始用输液泵以 120 mL/h 输注。到 09:30 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 无损害; 潮湿程度: 持续潮湿; 活动: 卧床不起; 活动能力: 不受限制; 营养: 充足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 有问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 87 kg,身高 168 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
某练习血气显示 PaCO₂ 54 mmHg (7.2 kPa)。利用规则:在急性呼吸性酸中毒中,PaCO₂ 每比 40 高出 10 mmHg,HCO₃⁻ 升高 1 mmol/L,以HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L 为起点,求预期HCO₃⁻。
练习数值:Na⁺ 135,Cl⁻ 104,HCO₃⁻ 19 mmol/L,白蛋白 17 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
这条 II 导联心电图条带显示窦性心律伴一次停顿。测量 停顿,即跨越停顿的 R–R 间期,单位为秒。
这位患者装有起搏器。请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。点击你的答案。
答案: B · Before antibiotics are given, as long as this does not delay them
Taking cultures first gives the best chance of identifying the organism. They are collected with strict asepsis, but antibiotics must not be delayed in sepsis.
答案: C · Accept the report, assess further and offer analgesia
Pain is what the patient says it is. People cope with pain in different ways, and vital signs often stay normal, especially in chronic pain, so the self-report guides care.
答案: B · A bacterial rather than a viral infection
Procalcitonin rises mainly in bacterial infections and much less in viral ones. It is used with clinical judgement to help decide when antibiotics are needed or can be stopped.
答案: A · Remove the restraints, because the reason for them has ended
Restraints are used only as long as needed to keep people safe. Once the patient no longer presents a danger, the restraints are removed, even if the order has not yet expired.
答案: B · Dark purple or black
A healthy stoma is moist and pink to red, and early swelling or slight bleeding is common. A dark purple or black stoma suggests poor blood supply (ischemia) and needs urgent review.
答案: A · 格拉斯哥昏迷评分从 15 分降至 12 分
GCS 下降提示颅内压升高,可能致命,需要紧急上报。骨折疼痛也需要处理,但不像这样威胁生命。
答案: D · Post-exposure prophylaxis works best when started as soon as possible
HIV post-exposure prophylaxis should be started as soon as possible after exposure, ideally within hours. Occupational health or the emergency department will assess the risk and arrange follow-up testing.
答案: C · "I will only use it when I'm wheezy."
Inhaled corticosteroids must be used regularly to reduce airway inflammation and prevent attacks. The short-acting reliever is used for symptoms.
答案: A · Magnesium-containing laxatives or antacids
In kidney failure, magnesium from milk of magnesia, magnesium citrate or magnesium-containing antacids can build up to toxic levels. Patients with CKD are taught to avoid these products. Diuretics, PPIs and alcohol cause low magnesium.
答案: A · Glucose 48 mg/dL (2.7 mmol/L) in a patient who had insulin an hour ago
Hypoglycemia after insulin can quickly cause seizures and loss of consciousness, so it is treated first. Mild anemia in CKD is expected, an INR of 2.6 is within the target range, and a slightly raised white count is common after surgery.
答案: A · Pregnant women should not handle crushed or broken tablets
Finasteride can be absorbed through the skin and may affect genital development of a male fetus. Women who are or may become pregnant should avoid contact with crushed or broken tablets.
答案: D · The drug can cause retinal toxicity that may be permanent
Hydroxychloroquine can damage the retina, and the risk rises with dose and duration. Regular screening allows the drug to be stopped before vision is seriously affected.
答案: C · Keep a diary of symptoms and activities with the times
A Holter monitor records the ECG continuously during normal daily life. A diary of symptoms and activities lets the reviewer match symptoms such as palpitations or dizziness to the rhythm. The device is kept dry unless it is designed to be waterproof.
答案: B · Nurse them in separate single rooms and keep them apart
People with CF are colonised with organisms such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cepacia complex that can pass between patients and worsen outcomes. They are cared for in single rooms and kept apart, without sharing equipment or sessions.
答案: C · Cloudy fluid, many neutrophils, low glucose and high protein
Bacterial meningitis usually gives turbid CSF with raised neutrophils and protein and low glucose. Viral meningitis typically shows clear fluid with lymphocytes and normal glucose.
答案: C · Aspirin
Aspirin (salicylates) displaces thyroid hormone from binding proteins, raising free hormone levels. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) and external cooling are used instead, together with treatment for the storm itself.
答案: D · If sterility is in doubt, the item is treated as contaminated
Sterile technique treats any doubtful item as contaminated. A gown is sterile only from chest to waist in front, and wet packaging can let microorganisms through.
答案: A · 绞窄或穿孔,需要紧急外科评估
疼痛从绞痛变为持续性疼痛,伴发热、心动过速、腹膜刺激征或乳酸升高,提示缺血(绞窄)或穿孔。这是外科急症。机械性梗阻禁用泻药。
答案: C · Collect a urine sample for culture and inform the provider
Dysuria suggests a urinary tract infection, which needs culture and treatment with a pregnancy-safe antibiotic. Untreated UTIs can progress to pyelonephritis and preterm labour.
答案: B · 确保母婴不被单独留下,并安排紧急精神科评估
产后不久出现幻觉提示产后精神病,对母婴都有风险。应确保持续安全的看护并紧急请专科评估。
答案: C · Count the apical pulse for a full minute and check it against the prescribed limits
Digoxin slows the heart rate and has a narrow therapeutic range. The apical pulse is counted for a full minute before each dose, and the dose is withheld and reported if the rate is below the limit set by the prescriber or local policy.
答案: B · 退行是对住院应激的常见反应,通常会过去;不要惩罚孩子
暂时性退行在住院的幼儿中很常见。应无惩罚地接受它,保持熟悉的日常规律并表扬孩子;技能通常在出院后恢复。
答案: A · 它需要数周才起效,不适合作为按需使用的药物
丁螺环酮镇静作用小,依赖风险低,但其效果需要数周才能积累。应规律服用,而不是按需服用。
答案: C · Agree a simple daily routine with small, achievable activities and give positive feedback
Negative symptoms such as avolition and anhedonia improve with structure, step-by-step goals and encouragement. Punishment or waiting for the patient to start on his own usually makes withdrawal worse.
答案: 4:40 PM
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: t = 625 min
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: D = 100 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 0.54 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: R = 83 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:83 滴/分。
答案: t = 5.4 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: V = 1.4 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 25.9 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 3.18 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 380 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 14
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 肥胖 I 级
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: HCO₃⁻ = 25.4 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: AGc = 17.75 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: 停顿 = 1.8 s
窄 QRS 心动过速与停顿:室上性心动过速(SVT)是规则的心动过速,约 150–250 次/分钟,QRS 波群较窄;P 波通常看不到,因为它们隐藏在 QRS 波群或 T 波中。成人静息时的窦性心动过速通常低于约 150 次/分钟,且每个 QRS 前都有可见的 P 波;伴 2:1 传导的心房扑动常在约 150 次/分钟,并显示锯齿波。窦性停搏是指窦房结暂时停止发放冲动:出现既无 P 波也无 QRS 的停顿,其长度不是 P–P 周期的整数倍(恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞)。
停顿中没有出现 P 波,且停顿不是 P–P 周期的整数倍:窦性停搏。恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞。
答案: 双腔(房室)起搏心律
起搏心律:起搏器脉冲表现为一条细而垂直的起搏钉样信号。心室钉样信号之后的 QRS 是增宽的(0.12 s 或以上),因为冲动是从导线经心肌传播,而不是经传导系统;右心室起搏时,在 II 导联上通常以负向为主。P 波之前的钉样信号表示心房起搏;双腔(房室)起搏器则表现为心房钉样信号加 P 波,再经过程控的房室延迟,出现心室钉样信号和增宽的 QRS。夺获是指每个钉样信号之后都跟着一次除极。夺获失败是指钉样信号之后没有 P 波或 QRS;感知不良(钉样信号无视患者自己的心搏)和起搏不良(该出现钉样信号时没有)是另外两种典型的故障。
起搏产生的 QRS 本来就是增宽的;不要称它为束支传导阻滞或室性心律。
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