感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Which part of the stethoscope is best for hearing low-pitched sounds such as some heart murmurs?
一名患者需要进行一次疼痛的换药。什么时候给予医嘱中的口服镇痛药最好?
病房暴发诺如病毒感染期间,工作人员在护理患者后应采用哪种手卫生方法?
Who should mark the operative site before surgery?
Which telephone call should a clinic nurse return first?
On an addiction unit, which patient should the nurse assess first?
即将开始输血。最重要的安全核查是什么?
A patient taking regular ibuprofen suddenly develops severe upper abdominal pain, a rigid abdomen and becomes tachycardic. What is most likely?
A patient with diabetes also takes propranolol. Why is regular glucose monitoring especially important?
A patient has a hematocrit of 60% and a raised red cell mass. Which result suggests polycythemia vera rather than secondary polycythemia from chronic hypoxia?
Methylergometrine (methylergonovine) is prescribed for postpartum bleeding. Which finding would make the nurse withhold it and check with the prescriber?
A patient with HIV has a CD4 count below 200 cells/mm3. Which prophylaxis is usually started?
A patient with a mechanical heart valve asks to switch from warfarin to apixaban. What is the correct response?
A nurse finds a patient collapsed in bed and unresponsive. What should the nurse do first?
A patient on peritoneal dialysis has gained weight and has higher glucose levels. Which part of the treatment is the likely cause?
A patient with SIADH needs IV fluid. Which fluid is most likely to worsen the hyponatraemia?
限钠和螺内酯在肝硬化中起什么作用?
A patient taking oral capecitabine reports red, painful, peeling palms and soles. What should the nurse do?
A newborn's blood glucose is low but the baby is well and able to feed. What is the usual first step?
产后 6 小时,一名女性尚未排尿。宫底松软并偏向右侧,出血增加。为什么这是优先事项?
唇裂修补术后,哪项护理措施可保护缝合线?
An overweight 12-year-old has had a limp and knee pain for 3 weeks. The knee looks normal. What should the nurse suspect?
Which side effects should the nurse monitor for in a patient starting donepezil?
A patient finds clothes in her wardrobe she does not remember buying, has gaps in her memory and is called by different names by people she does not know. Which condition is most likely?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 95.5 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液½ tbsp,每 12 小时一次,共 14 天。混悬液每瓶 150 mL。按1 tbsp = 15 mL,必须提供多少整瓶N才能完成疗程?
需要从 1%(w/v)溶液中取 50 mg 的剂量。多少容量 V 含有这一剂量?
处方剂量为 500 微克。安瓿浓度为 1 mg/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 10 滴/mL 的输液器在 12 小时内输入 1000 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一组输液以 40 滴/分的速度经 20 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 400 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份输液含普通胰岛素 100 单位,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 0.05 units/kg/h,患者体重 96 kg。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dopamine 800 mg,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 2 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 88 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 88 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 13:00 开始以 120 mL/h 输注。3 小时后速率改为 150 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 是; 行走辅助: 无、卧床休息或由护士协助; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 虚弱; 精神状态: 高估或忘记自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 63 kg,身高 151 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
练习数值:Na⁺ 142 mmol/L,葡萄糖 23.8 mmol/L,尿素 21.4 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
在海平面,某练习血气取自吸入 40% 氧气时,显示 PaO₂ 93 mmHg (12.4 kPa),PaCO₂ 42 mmHg (5.6 kPa)。用 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 求A–a 梯度。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
答案: A · The bell, placed lightly on the skin
The bell picks up low-pitched sounds and must be held lightly. The diaphragm, pressed firmly, is used for high-pitched sounds such as normal breath, bowel and heart sounds.
答案: C · 在操作前足够早的时候给药,使其达到峰值效应
根据药物起效和达峰时间提前给予镇痛药,可以使镇痛在操作过程中发挥作用。这比疼痛开始后再处理更有效。
答案: A · 用肥皂和水洗手
酒精手消毒剂不能可靠地杀灭诺如病毒,所以应使用肥皂和水洗手,通过机械作用将其清除。同时还应采取接触传播预防和彻底的环境清洁。
答案: B · The person who will perform the procedure, with the patient involved where possible
Under the Universal Protocol, the site is marked by the person performing the procedure, or an authorized delegate, ideally while the patient is awake and can confirm it. This helps prevent wrong-site surgery.
答案: D · A parent of a 6-week-old with a temperature of 38.3 °C
A fever in an infant under about 3 months old needs urgent assessment, because serious bacterial infection is more likely and signs can be subtle. The other calls are routine.
答案: C · Drowsy with pinpoint pupils and a respiratory rate of 7/min
Pinpoint pupils, drowsiness and slow breathing suggest opioid overdose, which can be fatal. Yawning, a runny nose, dilated pupils and cramps are signs of opioid withdrawal, which is distressing but rarely life-threatening.
答案: D · 在床旁确认患者身份并与血液成分核对一致
在床旁将患者腕带上的身份信息与配血标签和医嘱进行核对。开始输血前测量基线生命体征。
答案: A · A perforated peptic ulcer
Sudden severe pain with a board-like abdomen suggests perforation and peritonitis. The patient needs nil by mouth, IV access, analgesia and urgent surgical review.
答案: C · The drug can mask warning signs of hypoglycemia
Beta-blockers, especially nonselective ones, blunt adrenergic warning signs of hypoglycemia such as tremor and tachycardia, and they can delay recovery. Sweating usually remains. Glucose checks help detect lows that the patient may not feel.核对依据: Low blood sugar · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: D · A low erythropoietin level
In polycythemia vera, a marrow mutation (usually JAK2) drives red cell production, so erythropoietin is low. In secondary polycythemia from hypoxia (COPD, high altitude, smoking), erythropoietin is high. Often white cells and platelets are also raised in polycythemia vera.核对依据: Erythropoietin test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025); Polycythemia vera · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: C · Blood pressure of 160/105 mmHg
Ergot alkaloids cause vasoconstriction and can raise blood pressure sharply. They are contraindicated in hypertension and pre-eclampsia.
答案: D · Co-trimoxazole to prevent Pneumocystis pneumonia
A low CD4 count greatly raises the risk of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia. Co-trimoxazole prevents it and also reduces the risk of toxoplasmosis.
答案: C · Direct oral anticoagulants are not used for mechanical valves
Mechanical valves need lifelong anticoagulation with a vitamin K antagonist such as warfarin. Direct oral anticoagulants caused more clots and bleeding in mechanical valve patients and are contraindicated. Biological valves usually need only short-term anticoagulation.
答案: B · Shout for help, open the airway and check breathing for up to 10 seconds
In hospital, the nurse shouts for help, opens the airway and looks for normal breathing (and a pulse if trained) for up to 10 seconds. If the patient is not breathing normally, the arrest team is called and CPR started, with a defibrillator brought as soon as possible.
答案: A · Glucose absorbed from the dialysis fluid
Standard PD fluids contain glucose to pull water out by osmosis. Some glucose is absorbed, adding calories and raising blood glucose. Glucose monitoring and diet advice are needed, and other solutions may be used.
答案: D · 5% glucose (dextrose, D5W)
5% glucose (5% dextrose, D5W) provides free water once the glucose is metabolised. In SIADH, this water is kept, so sodium falls further. Hypotonic fluids are avoided. Hypertonic saline is used for severe symptomatic hyponatraemia.
答案: D · 减少钠水潴留并控制腹水
在肝硬化中,继发性醛固酮增多症引起钠水潴留。限钠和醛固酮拮抗剂螺内酯(常与袢利尿剂联用)可减少腹水。螺内酯可引起高钾血症和男性乳房发育。
答案: A · Report it; this is hand-foot syndrome and treatment may need changing
Palmar-plantar erythrodysaesthesia (hand-foot syndrome) is common with capecitabine and fluorouracil. It is graded and may need a treatment break or dose reduction; emollients and avoiding heat and friction help.
答案: C · Feed the baby and recheck the glucose
For mild, asymptomatic hypoglycaemia, early feeding and buccal glucose gel are used, with glucose rechecked per protocol. Symptomatic or persistent hypoglycaemia needs IV glucose.
答案: A · 膀胱充盈使子宫无法收缩,并加重出血
膀胱膨胀将子宫向上、向一侧推移,导致子宫收缩乏力和出血增多。协助她排尿,或遵医嘱导尿,然后重新评估宫底和出血情况。
答案: C · 让婴儿仰卧或侧卧,避免将物品放入口中
唇裂修补术后,应避免俯卧位和任何摩擦缝合线的物体。可按外科医生的指示使用肘部夹板。采用团队推荐的方法喂养。
答案: C · Slipped capital femoral epiphysis
Slipped capital femoral epiphysis typically affects overweight adolescents during the growth spurt. Hip pathology often presents as knee pain. The child should avoid weight-bearing and needs urgent orthopaedic assessment.
答案: A · Nausea, diarrhoea and a slow heart rate
Cholinesterase inhibitors increase cholinergic activity. Common effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and loss of appetite; bradycardia and fainting can also occur.
答案: C · Dissociative identity disorder
Dissociative identity disorder involves two or more distinct personality states with recurrent gaps in memory. It is strongly linked to severe, repeated trauma in childhood. It is different from schizophrenia, which is a psychotic disorder.
答案: T = 35.3 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: N = 2
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 5 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: V = 0.5 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: R = 14 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:14 滴/分。
答案: t = 3.3 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 12 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 6.6 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 1.23 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 3.9 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 3 h 56 min,所以袋子大约在 16:56 输完。
答案: MFS = 40
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 超重
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: Osm = 329 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: A–a 梯度 = 139.7 mmHg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 窦性心动过缓
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 尖端扭转型室性心动过速
更多室性心律:尖端扭转型室性心动过速是一种多形性室性心动过速,通常为 150–250 次/分钟,其增宽的波群高度不断变化并围绕基线扭转,先向上几个心搏,再向下。教科书将其与 QT 间期延长联系起来,复苏指南中针对它推荐的药物是硫酸镁。室性自搏心律是一种心室逸搏心律:规则、QRS 增宽(0.12 s 或以上)、无 P 波,频率 20–40 次/分钟(加速性室性自搏心律为 40–100 次/分钟)。单形性室速的增宽波群完全相同,频率超过 100 次/分钟。室颤则是混乱的,没有任何重复的波群。
尖端扭转型室性心动过速是与 QT 间期延长相关的多形性 VT。这里只是识别练习。
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