感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Where in the eye should eye drops be placed?
A man skips bowel cancer screening because he feels healthy and thinks cancer will not happen to him. Which Health Belief Model concept best explains this?
Which patient has the highest risk of a burn from a heating pad?
A nurse has a needlestick from a patient with hepatitis B. The nurse finished the vaccine series and has a documented protective antibody level. Which statement is correct?
哪项陈述表明对委派中的问责有正确理解?
A patient with known abdominal aortic aneurysm suddenly has severe back pain, a pulsing mass in the abdomen and a falling blood pressure. What should the nurse do?
Which advice is important for a patient on long-term oral corticosteroids?
开始输血后不久,患者出现气短、喘鸣、低血压和面部肿胀。护士首先应该做什么?
A patient with diabetes is found unconscious with a blood glucose of 38 mg/dL (2.1 mmol/L). Which treatment is appropriate?
A patient with C. difficile diarrhea has a white cell count of 24 × 10³/µL and a creatinine that has risen to 2.1 mg/dL (186 µmol/L). What does this indicate?
Which assessment is most important during IV mannitol therapy?
A 19-year-old woman is starting isotretinoin for severe acne. Which requirement is most important?
After coronary artery bypass surgery through a median sternotomy, which instruction is usually given for the first several weeks?
A patient has been on continuous NIV via a full-face mask for two days. Which nursing measure helps prevent the most common complication?
血液透析的哪种并发症会引起头痛、恶心、烦躁,有时还有惊厥,尤其是在最初几次透析中?
The day after a lumbar puncture, a patient has a headache that is severe when standing and almost gone when lying flat. Temperature and neck movement are normal. What is the most likely cause?
Why is the time a surgical limb tourniquet is inflated carefully recorded?
A patient with long-standing chronic pancreatitis now has weight loss, thirst and passing large volumes of urine. What should the nurse check first?
Which finding in a term newborn's first hours is normal?
A newborn whose mother had a fever and prolonged rupture of membranes is well at birth. Why does the nurse monitor this baby closely?
A child with type 1 diabetes is unconscious from hypoglycaemia at school. What should be done?
A child recovering from acute rheumatic fever with heart involvement asks why she needs regular penicillin for years. What is the best answer?
A patient who has started chlorpromazine feels dizzy when she gets out of bed. What should the nurse teach her?
A nurse suspects that a patient is hiding his tablets in his cheek and later spitting them out. What is the best approach?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 13:05(24 小时制)。哪个条目是 12 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了3 fl oz / 果汁, 1½ tsp / 止咳糖浆, 2 杯 / 茶, 1½ tbsp / 液体营养补充剂。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
需要从 1%(w/v)溶液中取 40 mg 的剂量。多少容量 V 含有这一剂量?
处方为 1100 单位的药物,药液规格为 10000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 10 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
25 mg 药物溶于 250 mL 的输液以 30 mL/h 运行。患者每分钟接受多少微克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份输液含普通胰岛素 100 单位,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 0.1 units/kg/h,患者体重 60 kg。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dobutamine 250 mg,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 10 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 51 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 60 mL/h 输注。到 09:30 时已输入 550 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张练习图表记录了 GCS 10,其中 E3 和 V3。记录的运动评分M是多少,它描述的是哪种反应?请给出数字。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 团队的目标是平均动脉压至少为 65 mmHg。一位患者的收缩压为 97 mmHg。使用 MAP = (SBP + 2·DBP)/3,仍能使 MAP 达到 65 mmHg 的最低舒张压DBP是多少?
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.42,PaCO₂ 29 mmHg (3.9 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 18 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.29,PaCO₂ 28 mmHg (3.7 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 13 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Bazett 公式 QTc = QT/√RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房与心室之间存在传导问题。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
答案: C · Into the pocket of the lower eyelid
Drops go into the lower conjunctival sac, which is less sensitive than the cornea. Pressing gently on the inner corner afterwards reduces drainage into the nose.
答案: A · Low perceived susceptibility
In the Health Belief Model, people act when they believe they are susceptible to a serious condition and that action will help. Low perceived susceptibility reduces the chance of screening.
答案: B · A patient with diabetic peripheral neuropathy
Reduced sensation, as in peripheral neuropathy, prevents a person from feeling heat damage. Patients with poor sensation, poor circulation or confusion need very close monitoring if heat is used at all.
答案: C · No hepatitis B treatment is needed, but the injury is still reported and followed up
A documented vaccine responder is protected against hepatitis B and needs no hepatitis B prophylaxis. The exposure is still reported, because the nurse and source patient need assessment for HIV and hepatitis C as well.
答案: B · “我对决定委派以及跟进结果负有问责。”
委派的护士对委派这一决定以及监督和评价负有问责。被委派者负责在其能力范围内正确地执行任务。
答案: C · Call for emergency help at once and prepare for urgent surgery
Sudden severe back or abdominal pain with hypotension in a patient with an aneurysm suggests rupture, which is fatal without urgent surgery. The mass should not be palpated firmly.
答案: B · Do not stop them suddenly
Long-term steroids suppress the adrenal glands, so stopping suddenly can cause adrenal crisis. Patients should carry a steroid alert card or medical ID and follow sick-day guidance.
答案: A · 停止输血,保留静脉通路,并紧急呼救
严重输血反应(包括过敏性休克)需要立即停止输血,保留静脉通路,按 ABCDE 方法处理,并用肌注肾上腺素治疗过敏性休克。
答案: D · Glucagon by injection, or IV dextrose as prescribed
A patient who cannot swallow safely must not receive anything by mouth because of the risk of aspiration. Glucagon (injected or intranasal) or IV dextrose raises the glucose; once awake and able to swallow, the patient is given oral carbohydrate and a snack.核对依据: Hypoglycemia · MedlinePlus (NIH); Low blood sugar · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: C · Severe C. difficile infection
A white count of 15 × 10³/µL or more or a creatinine above 1.5 mg/dL marks severe C. difficile infection. These patients need prompt treatment, fluid replacement and close monitoring for complications such as toxic megacolon. Contact precautions with soap-and-water hand hygiene are used.
答案: B · Urine output, electrolytes and signs of fluid overload
Mannitol draws fluid into the circulation before it is excreted, which can cause heart failure and pulmonary oedema. The large diuresis can cause dehydration and electrolyte imbalance, so output and electrolytes are monitored.
答案: C · Reliable contraception and pregnancy tests, as it is highly teratogenic
Isotretinoin causes severe birth defects. Pregnancy prevention programmes require effective contraception and regular pregnancy tests before, during and after treatment.
答案: C · Avoid heavy lifting and pushing up with the arms
The sternum is wired and takes weeks to heal. Patients are advised to avoid heavy lifting, pulling and pushing with the arms, and to support the chest with a pillow when coughing. Walking is encouraged as part of cardiac rehabilitation.
答案: D · Check mask fit and protect the bridge of the nose
Pressure injury over the bridge of the nose is common with NIV masks. Correctly sized masks, avoiding overtightening (allowing a small gap under the straps), protective dressings and regular skin checks reduce it. Other problems include eye irritation, dryness and gastric distension.
答案: D · 透析失衡综合征
血液中的尿素被快速清除,产生渗透压梯度,使水进入脑细胞,导致脑水肿。缩短并放缓最初几次透析可预防该并发症。
答案: A · Post-dural puncture headache
A positional headache after a lumbar puncture, without fever or neck stiffness, fits a CSF leak. It is managed with rest, fluids, analgesia and caffeine, and an epidural blood patch if it persists. Fever or neck stiffness would suggest infection instead.
答案: D · Long inflation can cause nerve and muscle damage
A tourniquet creates a bloodless field but causes limb ischaemia. Inflation time and pressure are recorded and the surgeon is told at set intervals, as long inflation can damage nerves and muscle.
答案: D · Capillary blood glucose
Destruction of islet cells in chronic pancreatitis can cause diabetes (type 3c). Thirst, polyuria and weight loss suggest hyperglycaemia, which is checked straight away.
答案: D · Short breathing pauses with no colour change
Newborns breathe irregularly, with short pauses of a few seconds and no change in colour or heart rate. Apnoea of 20 seconds or more, or any pause with cyanosis or bradycardia, is abnormal.
答案: A · The baby has a higher risk of early sepsis
Maternal fever, prolonged rupture of membranes and intra-amniotic infection are risk factors for early-onset sepsis. Many protocols require observation of vital signs and feeding, and sometimes blood tests or antibiotics.
答案: A · Give glucagon and call emergency services
An unconscious child cannot swallow safely, so glucagon is given by injection or nasal spray, the child is placed in the recovery position and emergency help is called. Once awake and able to swallow, carbohydrate is given.
答案: B · To prevent new strep infections that could cause further attacks and more valve damage
Recurrent episodes of rheumatic fever follow new group A streptococcal infections and worsen rheumatic heart disease. Long-term secondary prophylaxis with penicillin prevents these infections; it does not reverse existing damage.
答案: D · Sit on the edge of the bed for a moment and then stand up slowly
Many antipsychotics cause orthostatic hypotension through alpha-1 blockade. Rising slowly reduces dizziness and the risk of falls; the nurse also checks lying and standing blood pressure.
答案: D · Check his mouth after each dose, as policy allows, and explore why he does not want it
Mouth checks or liquid forms, as permitted, can confirm that medicine is taken. Understanding the reasons, such as side effects or beliefs about the drug, helps the team address the problem with the patient.
答案: 1:05 PM
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 600 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 4 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: V = 0.11 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 13 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:13 滴/分。
答案: D = 50 mcg/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 15 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 30.6 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 350 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 7.5 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 7 h 30 min,所以袋子大约在 17:00 输完。
答案: M = 4
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: DBP = 49 mmHg
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: 适当的代偿
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: QTc = 0.387 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
在通常上限之内(男性约 0.45 s,女性约 0.46 s)。(387 ms)
答案: 二度 I 型房室传导阻滞(文氏现象)
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
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