感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
At what angle is a subcutaneous injection usually given?
Where must the final identity check before a blood transfusion take place?
A visitor with a cold wants to see a patient who has severe neutropenia. What should the nurse advise?
An 82-year-old patient is prescribed diphenhydramine at bedtime for sleep. Why should the nurse raise this with the prescriber?
A nurse takes a telephone order from a provider. What must the nurse do?
Which finding after a laparoscopic cholecystectomy is expected and needs only reassurance and comfort measures?
一个新做的结肠造口在术后第二天呈暗紫色至黑色。这表示什么?
A patient has a single hot, swollen, very painful knee and a fever. Why is urgent joint aspiration important?
Two sets of blood cultures are ordered for a patient with suspected sepsis. How are they best collected?
一名慢性肾脏病患者磷酸盐为 7.2 mg/dL(2.3 mmol/L)。哪项饮食指导最恰当?
Which teaching about zolpidem is correct?
During general anaesthesia with a volatile agent and suxamethonium (succinylcholine), a patient develops muscle rigidity, rising end-tidal CO2 and a fast-rising temperature. Which drug is the specific treatment?
监护仪显示心室颤动。患者无反应,呼吸不正常。关键的治疗是什么?
A patient with severe aortic stenosis is prescribed glyceryl trinitrate (nitroglycerin) for chest pain. Why should the nurse use particular caution?
A patient is due a rapid-acting insulin dose before lunch, but the meal trays are delayed. What should the nurse do?
一名 22 岁的 1 型糖尿病患者血糖 28 mmol/L,酮体 5.2 mmol/L,pH 7.10,血钾 5.9 mmol/L。关于钾,下列哪项说法正确?
Why are antimotility drugs such as loperamide avoided in C. difficile infection?
为什么对术后阿片类药物引起呼吸抑制的患者,纳洛酮通常以小剂量重复给予?
A woman with hypothyroidism becomes pregnant. What usually happens to her levothyroxine needs?
A woman at 28 weeks has itching, and her liver tests and bile acids are raised. Which advice is most important?
A 13-year-old has a concussion during a football match. What is the correct advice?
A teenager with severe anorexia nervosa starts nutritional rehabilitation. Which blood result is most important to watch in the first days?
When is the best time to teach a patient with an anxiety disorder a relaxation technique?
A patient says, "I don't have a drinking problem. I only drink at weekends, like everyone else." He drinks heavily every weekend. Which approach fits his stage of change best?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名新生儿体重 5 lb 8 oz。按 1 lb = 16 oz 和 1 kg = 2.2 lb,求以千克表示的体重m。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次维持输液以 60 mL/h 的速度不间断运行。24 小时内输注多少升V?
一名体重 24 kg 的儿童按 2.5 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 10 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一名患者身高 151 cm,体重 35 kg。医嘱为 25 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
用滴系数为 20 滴/mL 的输液器在 5 小时内输入 1500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。
医嘱要求在 12 小时内输入 1000 mL。3 小时后你发现袋中还剩 950 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 原来的泵速必须提高百分之多少 Δ?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含 250 单位普通胰岛素、容量 250 mL 的输液以 8 mL/h 输注。患者每小时接受多少单位 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dobutamine 250 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 6 mL/h 输注。患者体重 78 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 120 mL/h 输注。到 20:00 时已输入 300 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位头部损伤后的练习患者完全不睁眼,不发出任何声音,最佳运动反应表现为:完全没有动作。 算出 GCS 并据此对头部损伤分级。点击你的答案。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 122 kg,身高 183 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
练习数值:Na⁺ 138 mmol/L,葡萄糖 17.7 mmol/L,尿素 14.7 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
某练习血气显示呼吸性酸中毒:pH 7.17,PaCO₂ 80 mmHg (10.7 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 28 mmol/L。利用规则“HCO₃⁻ 每 10 mmHg 升高 1 mmol/L(急性)或 3.5 mmol/L(慢性)”进行分类。点选你的答案。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房扑动。测量扑动波间期,求出心房率(单位:次/分)。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
答案: D · 45 to 90 degrees, depending on the amount of fat
The angle depends on needle length and body fat. A short needle at 90 degrees suits most adults; in thin patients a pinch of skin or a 45-degree angle avoids reaching muscle.
答案: D · At the bedside, with the patient and their wristband
The final check matches the patient's identity, by asking and from the wristband, with the blood bag and prescription at the bedside. Most wrong-blood events come from checks done away from the patient.
答案: C · Postpone the visit until the visitor is well
Patients with severe neutropenia cannot fight infections well. People with respiratory or other infections should not visit until they are well; other visitors perform hand hygiene.
答案: D · It is strongly anticholinergic and can cause confusion and falls in older adults
First-generation antihistamines such as diphenhydramine are on the Beers list because they cause confusion, constipation, urinary retention and falls in older adults. Safer approaches to sleep should be discussed.
答案: B · Write the order down and read it back to the provider to confirm it
For telephone and verbal orders, the nurse writes down the full order and reads it back so the provider can confirm it. This “read-back” prevents errors from mishearing.
答案: B · Right shoulder pain from the gas used during surgery
Gas used to inflate the abdomen irritates the diaphragm and causes referred shoulder pain, which settles in a day or two. Jaundice, fever with worsening pain and signs of shock suggest complications.
答案: B · 造口可能缺血,需要紧急评估
造口颜色暗淡或发黑提示血供不足、可能坏死,必须立即报告外科团队。
答案: B · To rule out septic arthritis, which can rapidly destroy the joint
Septic arthritis can destroy cartilage within days. Aspiration allows microscopy and culture, and helps distinguish infection from crystal arthritis such as gout.
答案: D · From two separate venipuncture sites, using strict aseptic technique
Taking cultures from two separate sites helps distinguish true bacteremia (growth in both sets) from skin contamination (growth in only one). The skin is cleaned carefully, the bottle tops are disinfected, and cultures are taken before antibiotics.
答案: C · 限制富含磷酸盐的食物,如加工食品和可乐
CKD 中的高磷通过限制磷摄入、随餐服用结合剂和透析来处理。含有磷酸盐添加剂的加工食品、可乐和大量乳制品是主要来源。核对依据: Phosphorus: Tips for People with Chronic Kidney Disease · Indian Health Service (HHS); Phosphorus and Your Kidneys · National Kidney Foundation (2024); Chronic kidney disease · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: B · Take it right before bed, only if you can sleep a full night
Zolpidem can cause next-day impairment and complex sleep behaviours such as sleep-walking or sleep-driving. Alcohol and other sedatives increase these risks.
答案: B · Dantrolene
Malignant hyperthermia is caused by uncontrolled calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Dantrolene blocks this release, and the triggering agents are stopped at once.
答案: D · 尽快进行心肺复苏和除颤
心室颤动是心脏骤停的心律。高质量的心肺复苏和早期非同步除颤才是提高生存率的干预措施。同步电复律用于有脉搏的快速性心律失常;阿托品和起搏用于心动过缓。
答案: C · Vasodilators can cause a severe fall in BP with a fixed outflow obstruction
In severe aortic stenosis, cardiac output is fixed by the narrow valve. Vasodilators lower preload and afterload, and the heart cannot compensate, so the blood pressure can fall sharply and cause syncope. They are used with care and close monitoring.
答案: B · Wait to give the insulin until the meal arrives
Rapid-acting insulin begins to work within about 15 minutes, so giving it without food risks hypoglycaemia. It is given just before or with the meal. Basal insulin is not affected by meal delays.
答案: D · 全身钾不足,治疗后血钾会下降
在 DKA 中,钾移出细胞,同时肾脏经尿丢失钾,因此尽管总缺乏量很大,血清钾仍可正常或偏高。补液和胰岛素会使其迅速下降。应密切监测钾,并在其降至正常范围后按方案补充。
答案: C · They may keep toxin in the bowel and risk toxic megacolon
Slowing the bowel can increase toxin contact and the risk of colonic dilatation (toxic megacolon). Treatment is an oral antibiotic such as vancomycin or fidaxomicin, stopping unnecessary antibiotics and replacing fluids.
答案: D · 恢复呼吸,同时不引起剧烈疼痛和戒断反应
大剂量推注可突然逆转镇痛,引起剧烈疼痛、躁动、高血压、肺水肿和心律失常。滴定小剂量可恢复足够的呼吸。因为纳洛酮的作用可能比阿片类药物短,可能需要监测并重复给药或持续输注。
答案: B · They usually rise, so levels are checked early
Levothyroxine needs usually rise in pregnancy. Thyroid function is checked as soon as pregnancy is confirmed and regularly afterwards, because untreated hypothyroidism can affect fetal brain development.
答案: C · Report reduced fetal movements straight away
Intrahepatic cholestasis is linked with stillbirth, especially with high bile acids. Women are monitored closely, told to report reduced movements and may be offered birth earlier. Cool baths and emollients ease itching.
答案: D · No sport that day; return step by step once symptoms have gone
A child with suspected concussion should never return to play the same day. After a short period of relative rest, a stepwise return to school and then sport is followed, progressing only while symptom-free, with medical review for red flags.
答案: B · Phosphate
When feeding restarts after starvation, insulin drives phosphate, potassium and magnesium into cells. Low phosphate can cause heart failure, arrhythmias and confusion, so electrolytes are checked often and feeds are increased gradually.
答案: C · When the patient's anxiety is at a mild level
Patients with severe anxiety or panic cannot take in new information. New coping skills are taught when anxiety is low, so they can be used later when anxiety rises.
答案: C · Offer non-judgemental information and explore how drinking affects his life
In precontemplation, the aim is to raise awareness without confrontation, for example by giving personalised feedback and exploring the pros and cons. Action-focused plans fit later stages.
答案: m = 2.5 kg
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 1.44 L
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 6 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: D = 30.29 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 100 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: Δ = 26.67 %
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
这超过了 25% 的增幅:大多数医院要求你联系开医嘱者,而不是加快补输,并评估患者是否存在液体过多。
答案: D = 8 件/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 1.3 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 195 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 5.8 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 5 h 50 min,所以袋子大约在 01:50 输完。
答案: 重度
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 肥胖 II 级
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: Osm = 308 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 急性
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 心房率 = 250 bpm
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 尖端扭转型室性心动过速
更多室性心律:尖端扭转型室性心动过速是一种多形性室性心动过速,通常为 150–250 次/分钟,其增宽的波群高度不断变化并围绕基线扭转,先向上几个心搏,再向下。教科书将其与 QT 间期延长联系起来,复苏指南中针对它推荐的药物是硫酸镁。室性自搏心律是一种心室逸搏心律:规则、QRS 增宽(0.12 s 或以上)、无 P 波,频率 20–40 次/分钟(加速性室性自搏心律为 40–100 次/分钟)。单形性室速的增宽波群完全相同,频率超过 100 次/分钟。室颤则是混乱的,没有任何重复的波群。
尖端扭转型室性心动过速是与 QT 间期延长相关的多形性 VT。这里只是识别练习。
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