感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A dying patient has noisy, rattling breathing that is upsetting the family. Which nursing action helps?
A patient has a platelet count of 40 × 10⁹/L (40,000/mm³). Which nursing measure is appropriate?
A patient has highly contagious viral conjunctivitis. Which teaching is most important?
Before the wound is closed, the sponge count does not match the starting count. What should happen?
An older adult asks for something to help them sleep. Which drug is most likely to cause confusion and falls in this age group?
一名新做气管切开的患者咳嗽、呼吸嘈杂,SpO₂ 已降至 86%。首要行动是什么?
A patient with DKA has an arterial blood gas showing a low pH and a low bicarbonate. Which disturbance is this?
为什么浓氯化钾绝不能快速静脉推注?
A stable adult who is not bleeding receives one unit of packed red cells. By about how much is the hemoglobin expected to rise?
A patient with chronic kidney disease stage 4 has a high phosphate, a low-normal calcium and a very high parathyroid hormone (PTH). What does this show?
ACE 抑制剂典型的常见副作用是什么?
In myxoedema coma, why is hydrocortisone often given before or with thyroid hormone?
对静脉性下肢溃疡进行加压治疗之前,必须做哪项评估?
A patient with a tracheostomy suddenly becomes distressed, and a suction catheter will not pass down the tube. What should the nurse do first?
一名高血压难以控制、血钾持续偏低的患者,未使用利尿剂。应考虑哪种疾病?
一名甲状腺功能减退患者已数周未服药,入院时体温过低、嗜睡,脉搏 46 次/分,血钠偏低,PaCO₂ 升高。最可能的诊断是什么?
Which is a usual benefit of laparoscopic over open abdominal surgery?
A 62-year-old with known reflux reports burning central chest pain with sweating and breathlessness that began while walking. What should the nurse do first?
Which is a common sign of iron deficiency anaemia in pregnancy?
A newborn passed no meconium by 48 hours and has a swollen abdomen and green vomiting. Which condition should be suspected?
A child with a known peanut allergy is starting school. What is the most important step?
一名意识清醒的 6 个月大婴儿被噎住,无法哭泣或咳嗽。哪种手法是恰当的?
Which item is part of a safety plan for a person experiencing domestic violence?
A patient asks the nurse to pray with her before her ECT. The nurse does not share her religion. What is the most appropriate response?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 06:00(24 小时制)。哪个条目是 12 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了3 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, 1 tsp / 止咳糖浆, 2 杯 / 茶。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一名体重 86 kg 的患者体表面积为 1.84 m²。医嘱为 20 mg/m²。求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
你需要用 20%(w/v)储备液配制 1000 mL 2%(w/v)溶液。 你需要多少容量的储备液 V₁?
用滴系数为 20 滴/mL 的输液器在 3 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一组输液以 42 滴/分的速度经 15 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 600 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 25 000 单位,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 12 units/kg/h,患者体重 69 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 100 kg 的患者的医嘱为nitroglycerin 30 mcg/min。输液袋中含 25 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 125 mL/h 输注。到 17:00 时已输入 200 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的脉搏为 116 次/分,血压为 127/70 mmHg。求休克指数SI = HR/SBP。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 16 次/分,SpO₂ 99%吸室内空气,血压 112/68 mmHg,脉搏 70 次/分,清醒,体温 35.5 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 14 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
练习数值:Na⁺ 134,Cl⁻ 112,HCO₃⁻ 10 mmol/L,白蛋白 25 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
测量这条 II 导联心电图上的QT 间期,以秒为单位。
这位患者装有起搏器。请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。点击你的答案。
答案: A · Reposition the patient and explain the cause to the family
Noisy "death rattle" breathing comes from secretions in the throat and is not usually distressing to the patient. Repositioning, explanation and sometimes medicines help; deep suction is usually avoided.
答案: B · Use a soft toothbrush and avoid IM injections where possible
A low platelet count raises the risk of bleeding. Bleeding precautions include soft toothbrushes, electric razors, avoiding IM injections and avoiding aspirin and NSAIDs.
答案: C · Wash hands often and do not share towels, pillows or eye drops
Viral conjunctivitis spreads easily by contact with eye secretions. Hand hygiene, not touching the eyes and not sharing towels, pillows or eye products reduce spread.
答案: D · Tell the surgeon and team, search for the item, and image the patient per policy if it is not found
A count discrepancy is reported to the whole team at once. Closure waits while the field, wound and room are searched, and an x-ray is taken per policy if the item is still missing.
答案: C · Diphenhydramine
Diphenhydramine is strongly anticholinergic and can cause confusion, urinary retention and falls in older adults. It is on lists of drugs to avoid in this group.
答案: C · 对气管切开管吸痰
气管切开患者出现呼吸嘈杂、咳嗽和 SpO₂ 下降,提示管内有分泌物。吸痰可清理气道。如果气道仍被堵塞,应遵循气管切开紧急处理流程并呼叫援助。
答案: D · Metabolic acidosis
In DKA, ketoacids consume bicarbonate, causing a metabolic acidosis. The patient breathes deeply and fast (Kussmaul breathing) to lower PaCO2 as compensation.
答案: B · 可能引起致命性心律失常
浓钾推注可使心脏停搏。钾必须稀释后以控制的速度给药,通常使用输液泵。
答案: D · About 1 g/dL (10 g/L)
In an average-sized adult without ongoing bleeding or hemolysis, one unit of red cells raises the hemoglobin by about 1 g/dL (and the hematocrit by about 3%). A smaller rise suggests ongoing blood loss or red cell destruction.核对依据: Blood Transfusion · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2026)
答案: A · Secondary hyperparathyroidism from CKD
In CKD, phosphate retention and reduced activation of vitamin D lower calcium, which stimulates the parathyroid glands. The result is high PTH with high phosphate, causing bone disease. Phosphate binders, diet and active vitamin D are used.核对依据: Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2023)
答案: A · 干咳
ACE 也会降解缓激肽。抑制该酶后,缓激肽在气道中蓄积,部分患者会出现持续干咳。
答案: B · Thyroid hormone can trigger adrenal crisis if cortisol is also low
Restoring thyroid hormone increases metabolic rate and cortisol clearance. If adrenal reserve is also low, this can precipitate adrenal crisis, so steroid cover is given until adrenal insufficiency is excluded.
答案: A · 踝肱压力指数(ABPI)
加压有助于静脉回流,但如果动脉供血不足,可引起组织坏死。ABPI 比较踝部和上臂的收缩压;低于约 0.8(或高于约 1.3,提示血管钙化)的数值在加压前需要专科评估。
答案: A · Remove the inner cannula
Tracheostomy emergency guidance is to remove the inner cannula first, because it may be blocked with secretions. If the patient does not improve, the cuff is deflated and the tube may need to be removed. Oxygen is applied to the face and the stoma, and emergency help is called.
答案: C · 原发性醛固酮增多症(Conn 综合征)
醛固酮过多导致钠水潴留(高血压)和钾丢失(低钾血症)。原发性醛固酮增多症是高血压常见的继发原因,通过醛固酮/肾素比值筛查。Addison 病的表现则相反。
答案: D · 黏液性水肿昏迷
黏液性水肿昏迷表现为意识下降、体温过低、心动过缓、通气不足、低钠血症和低血糖,常由感染或漏服药物诱发。需要重症监护,静脉给予甲状腺激素,在排除肾上腺功能不全前给予类固醇覆盖,被动复温,并对镇静药格外谨慎。
答案: C · Less pain and a shorter hospital stay
Smaller incisions usually mean less pain, faster mobilisation, fewer wound complications and shorter stays. There are still risks, including injury to organs and shoulder-tip pain from the gas.
答案: D · Record a 12-lead ECG and escalate as possible cardiac pain
Cardiac pain can feel like heartburn. Exertional pain with sweating and breathlessness must be treated as possible acute coronary syndrome until excluded, so an ECG and urgent review come first.
答案: C · Tiredness, pallor and breathlessness
Iron deficiency causes fatigue, pallor, breathlessness, palpitations and sometimes pica. A full blood count and ferritin confirm the diagnosis.
答案: A · Hirschsprung disease
Delayed meconium, abdominal distension and bilious vomiting suggest bowel obstruction, such as Hirschsprung disease. Bilious vomiting in a newborn is always an emergency.
答案: D · A written allergy action plan, with in-date auto-injectors and trained staff
Schools need an individual action plan describing symptoms and steps, staff trained to recognise anaphylaxis and give adrenaline, and auto-injectors that are always quickly available. Avoiding the allergen and not sharing food also help.
答案: D · 拍背最多 5 次,然后胸部按压最多 5 次
对 1 岁以下的婴儿,应交替进行拍背和胸部按压,并将婴儿头低位放在前臂上。婴儿不使用腹部冲击。
答案: A · Keeping an emergency bag with documents, money and keys somewhere safe
A safety plan includes an escape bag, important documents, a safe place to go, emergency numbers and a code word with trusted people. The time of leaving can be the most dangerous period.
答案: C · Respect the request, join in if comfortable, and offer to call the chaplain
Supporting spiritual needs can reduce distress. The nurse can respond with respect within her own comfort, and refer to chaplaincy or faith leaders, without imposing her own beliefs.
答案: 6:00 AM
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 530 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 36.8 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: V₁ = 100 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: R = 56 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:56 滴/分。
答案: t = 3.6 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 8.3 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 18 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: I = 1520 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 2.4 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 2 h 24 min,所以袋子大约在 19:24 输完。
答案: SI = 0.91
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
高于通常的 0.5–0.7。
答案: 低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: PaCO₂ = 29 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: AGc = 15.75 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: QT = 0.38 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
粗略的规则:在正常心率下,QT 应小于 R–R 间期的一半(此处 R–R = 0.64 s)。
答案: 心室起搏心律
起搏心律:起搏器脉冲表现为一条细而垂直的起搏钉样信号。心室钉样信号之后的 QRS 是增宽的(0.12 s 或以上),因为冲动是从导线经心肌传播,而不是经传导系统;右心室起搏时,在 II 导联上通常以负向为主。P 波之前的钉样信号表示心房起搏;双腔(房室)起搏器则表现为心房钉样信号加 P 波,再经过程控的房室延迟,出现心室钉样信号和增宽的 QRS。夺获是指每个钉样信号之后都跟着一次除极。夺获失败是指钉样信号之后没有 P 波或 QRS;感知不良(钉样信号无视患者自己的心搏)和起搏不良(该出现钉样信号时没有)是另外两种典型的故障。
起搏产生的 QRS 本来就是增宽的;不要称它为束支传导阻滞或室性心律。
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