感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Why is an IV giving set primed before connecting it to the patient?
A patient with diabetes has had foot-care teaching. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
一名患者胸部某一区域出现带状疱疹(herpes zoster),免疫功能正常,且皮损可以完全遮盖。通常需要采取哪种预防措施?
A patient restrained because of violent behavior is now calm, oriented and following instructions. What should the nurse do?
A patient is booked for a CT scan with iodinated contrast. Which of the patient’s medications may need to be held according to protocol?
A patient was knocked out briefly in a fall, then woke and talked normally. Two hours later the patient becomes drowsy and one pupil is larger. What is the most likely cause?
一名服用地高辛的患者出现恶心,脉搏 48 次/分,并说看什么都是黄色的。你应怀疑什么?
Which finding suggests hypocalcaemia?
When should a blood specimen tube be labeled?
A patient has sudden episodes of severe headache, sweating, palpitations and very high blood pressure. Which test is most useful to look for the cause?
A patient takes cholestyramine. How should other oral medicines be timed?
A drug is ordered at 5 micrograms/kg/min for an 80 kg patient. The infusion contains 1,600 micrograms per mL. What rate in mL/h is needed?
Which ECG pattern is typical of acute pericarditis?
在严重哮喘发作期间,一名患者的 PaCO₂ 从偏低升至正常,同时看起来精疲力竭。这意味着什么?
A patient has radioactive iodine treatment for hyperthyroidism. Which advice is correct?
A patient with stable epilepsy on phenytoin started a new medicine last week. They now have nystagmus, an unsteady gait and slurred speech. What should the nurse do?
Why might a patient's platelet count be monitored while they receive heparin?
A patient with small cell lung cancer is confused and drowsy. Sodium is 118 mmol/L and the urine is highly concentrated. Which complication is likely?
Why is a copper intrauterine device a good contraceptive option for many breastfeeding mothers?
Which statement by a woman in early labour shows a need for further teaching about pain relief?
一名患哮喘的学龄儿童每天使用吸入性糖皮质激素。护士应教给他们什么?
An infant with a large VSD now breathes faster, sweats during feeds and has gained 300 g overnight with puffy eyelids. What does this most likely indicate?
一名患者每天服用苯二氮䓬类药物已有数月。为什么不能突然停药?
一名患者说她在家里存了大量药片,打算这个周末全部服下。优先措施是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者身高 6 ft 6 in。按 1 ft = 12 in 和 1 in = 2.54 cm,求以厘米表示的身高h,取到最接近的整厘米。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了¼ 杯 / 茶, 8 fl oz / 果汁, 1 tsp / 止咳糖浆。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
某患者体重 25 kg,医嘱为单次给药 2 mg/kg。求剂量 D(mg)。
一名患者体重 22 lb。医嘱为单次剂量 2 mg/kg,储备液为 5 mL 中含 200 mg。按 1 kg = 2.2 lb 计算,你应给予多少容量 V?
滴注以 100 gtt/min 的速度通过滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器。患者在 4 小时内接受多少毫升 V?
一袋液体在 500 mL 中含药 1000 mg,以 25 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 20 000 单位,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 15 units/kg/h,患者体重 64 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dopamine 800 mg,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 5 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 98 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 10:30 开始以 120 mL/h 输注。2 小时后速率改为 125 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 非常受限; 潮湿程度: 很少潮湿; 活动: 经常步行; 活动能力: 轻度受限; 营养: 充足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 无明显问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 112 kg,身高 157 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.25,PaCO₂ 56 mmHg (7.5 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
练习数值:Na⁺ 142,Cl⁻ 112,HCO₃⁻ 18 mmol/L,白蛋白 29 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房扑动。每个 QRS 波群对应多少个每个 QRS 对应的扑动波(n:1 传导中的 n)?
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
答案: D · To remove air from the line
Priming fills the line with fluid and removes air, which could otherwise enter the vein and cause an air embolism.
答案: A · "I'll soak my feet in hot water every evening."
People with diabetic neuropathy may not feel heat, and soaking softens the skin, so long hot soaks are avoided. Daily inspection, good footwear and careful drying are correct.
答案: C · 标准预防,并遮盖皮损
免疫功能正常的患者出现局限性带状疱疹、且皮损可遮盖时,采用标准预防。播散性带状疱疹需要采取空气传播和接触传播预防,直至所有皮损干燥结痂;免疫功能低下患者的局限性带状疱疹则需要采取这些预防措施,直至排除播散。对水痘无免疫力的工作人员不应参与护理。
答案: D · Remove the restraints, because the reason for them has ended
Restraints are used only as long as needed to keep people safe. Once the patient no longer presents a danger, the restraints are removed, even if the order has not yet expired.
答案: C · Metformin
If contrast causes kidney injury, metformin can build up and cause lactic acidosis. Protocols often hold metformin around the procedure, especially when kidney function is reduced.
答案: D · An epidural hematoma
An epidural hematoma often causes a brief loss of consciousness, a lucid interval, then rapid deterioration as arterial bleeding compresses the brain. It is a neurosurgical emergency.
答案: B · 地高辛中毒
地高辛中毒会引起恶心、呕吐、心动过缓、心律失常和视觉障碍。低钾会增加风险。应暂停给药并报告。
答案: D · Spasm of the hand when a blood pressure cuff is inflated on the arm
Trousseau's sign, carpal spasm during cuff inflation, and Chvostek's sign, facial twitching on tapping the facial nerve, indicate neuromuscular irritability from low calcium.
答案: A · At the bedside, in the patient's presence, using two identifiers
Specimens are labeled immediately after collection, at the bedside, after checking two patient identifiers such as name and date of birth. Pre-labeling or labeling away from the patient can put the wrong patient's name on the sample, which can lead to harmful decisions.
答案: C · Plasma free metanephrines
These episodes suggest pheochromocytoma, a tumor of the adrenal medulla that releases catecholamines. Plasma free metanephrines (or 24-hour urine metanephrines) are the main screening tests. Hyperthyroidism can cause similar symptoms but usually without these bursts of severe hypertension.核对依据: Pheochromocytoma · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: A · Take them 1 hour before or several hours after cholestyramine
Bile acid sequestrants bind many drugs, such as warfarin, digoxin and levothyroxine, as well as fat-soluble vitamins. Other drugs are taken about 1 hour before or 4–6 hours after it.
答案: A · 15 mL/h
5 × 80 = 400 micrograms/min, × 60 = 24,000 micrograms/h, ÷ 1,600 micrograms/mL = 15 mL/h. Weight-based infusions are double-checked because errors are easy to make.
答案: B · Widespread saddle-shaped ST elevation with PR depression
Pericarditis often causes concave ST elevation across many leads and PR segment depression, because the inflammation is not limited to one coronary territory. Localised ST elevation with reciprocal changes suggests STEMI. Pericarditis is usually treated with NSAIDs and colchicine.
答案: D · 患者正在疲劳,随后可能发生呼吸衰竭
发作早期,过度通气会使 PaCO₂ 降低。呼吸困难且正在疲劳的患者 PaCO₂ 正常或升高,意味着通气功能衰竭,是危及生命的特征。需要紧急的高级医师和重症监护评估。
答案: D · Limit close contact with children and pregnant women for a time
After radioiodine, patients are advised to limit close and prolonged contact, especially with young children and pregnant women, for a period set by the department. It is contraindicated in pregnancy and breastfeeding.
答案: B · Suspect phenytoin toxicity, hold the next dose and ask for a drug level
Nystagmus, ataxia and slurred speech are classic signs of phenytoin toxicity. Interacting drugs can raise its level. The nurse holds the dose, ensures safety and escalates for a level and a review. A new neurological deficit still needs medical assessment.
答案: A · To detect heparin-induced thrombocytopenia
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia is an immune reaction, usually 5–10 days after starting heparin, that lowers platelets and paradoxically causes thrombosis. Monitoring depends on risk and local policy.
答案: A · SIADH
Small cell lung cancer can secrete ADH, causing water retention, dilutional hyponatraemia and inappropriately concentrated urine. Management includes fluid restriction and careful correction of sodium to avoid osmotic demyelination.
答案: D · It is hormone-free and very effective
The copper IUD contains no hormones, does not affect milk supply and is highly effective for many years. It does not protect against sexually transmitted infections.
答案: A · "If I have an epidural, I will not need my blood pressure checked."
Epidurals often cause hypotension, so blood pressure is checked frequently after they are started. Movement, breathing techniques and warm water are effective non-drug measures.
答案: B · 每次用药后漱口,并使用储雾罐
吸入性糖皮质激素是控制药物,需每天使用。漱口可降低口腔念珠菌感染和声音嘶哑的风险,储雾罐可改善药物向肺部的输送。发作时使用短效缓解药物。
答案: B · Worsening heart failure with fluid retention
A sudden overnight weight gain with periorbital oedema, tachypnoea and sweating suggests fluid retention from worsening heart failure. Daily weights on the same scale are a key way to monitor fluid status in these infants.
答案: B · 突然戒断可引起严重焦虑、失眠和惊厥
长期使用苯二氮䓬类药物会导致躯体依赖。突然停药可引起反跳性焦虑、震颤和惊厥,因此应逐渐减量。
答案: B · 对她进行密切观察,确保她的即时安全,并紧急通知团队
具体的计划、可获得的手段和时间框架提示高风险。不得让患者独处,应立即通知团队,并作为紧急评估和安全计划的一部分减少其获得手段的途径。
答案: h = 198 cm
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 305 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 50 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 0.5 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: V = 400 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: D = 50 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 24 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 18.4 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 1380 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 4.1 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 4 h 05 min,所以袋子大约在 14:35 输完。
答案: B = 19
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 肥胖 III 级
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: 未代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: AGc = 14.75 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: 每个 QRS 对应的扑动波 = 4
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 心脏停搏
室性节律:室性心动过速是连续三个或以上宽大(0.12 s 或以上)的波群,频率超过 100 次/分,通常为 150–250 次/分,节律规则,没有相关的 P 波。心室颤动是紊乱、不规则的波形,无法辨认 P 波、QRS 波群或 T 波,也没有可计数的频率。心脏停搏是几乎平直的线,没有心室活动;平直线一定要通过检查患者、导联和增益并换一个导联来确认。在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律,心脏停搏则不是。
平直线必须核实:查看患者、导联和增益,并换看第二个导联,因为电极脱落或细颤型室颤都可能看起来像心脏停搏。
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