感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
一名晚期痴呆患者无法描述自己的疼痛。应如何评估疼痛?
在 SBAR 沟通工具中,"A"代表什么?
A patient with delirium is at risk of falls and of pulling out lines. Which option is less restrictive than restraints?
Before the wound is closed, the sponge count does not match the starting count. What should happen?
A patient with a head injury is being monitored. Which set of findings suggests rising intracranial pressure?
A patient at 32 weeks of pregnancy feels dizzy and faint while lying flat on her back. What should the nurse do first?
Which measure helps reduce the risk of surgical site infection?
An older patient's blood pressure is 142/80 mmHg lying and 116/72 mmHg after standing for three minutes, and they feel dizzy. What does this show?
A patient taking a statin reports new, unexplained muscle pain and weakness. Which laboratory test would the nurse expect to be ordered?
一名糖尿病酮症酸中毒患者在开始胰岛素输注前钾为 3.0 mEq/L。护士应预期什么?
In which patient is bupropion contraindicated?
Why must several weeks pass before starting an MAO inhibitor after stopping fluoxetine?
What is the main difference between CPAP and bilevel NIV (often called BiPAP)?
A patient on a morphine PCA after surgery is very drowsy, with a respiratory rate of 7/min and pinpoint pupils. SpO₂ is 89%. What should the nurse do first?
为什么在 DKA 静脉输注胰岛素时必须密切监测钾?
Near the end of a haemodialysis session, a patient has painful leg cramps and a falling blood pressure. What is the most likely cause?
What is anticipatory nausea in chemotherapy?
An immobile patient on opioids drinks very little. Which laxative choice is least appropriate?
Why do newborns become cold so easily?
出生后 1 小时,糖尿病母亲所生的巨大儿烦躁不安、吃奶差。护士应首先做什么?
How should a 4-month-old be protected from the sun?
Which statement by the parent of a child with peanut allergy shows a need for further teaching?
一名患者坚持说工作人员在他的食物里下毒。最佳的初始应对方式是什么?
A community nurse visits an older woman with hoarding disorder whose home is so cluttered that the exits are blocked. What is the most appropriate approach?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名新生儿体重 10 lb 2 oz。按 1 lb = 16 oz 和 1 kg = 2.2 lb,求以千克表示的体重m。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液1 tsp,每天三次,共 5 天。按1 tsp = 5 mL,整个疗程需要多少 mLV?
一名体重 62 kg 的患者体表面积为 1.5 m²。医嘱为 250 mg/m²。求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
一名患者体重 39.6 lb。医嘱为单次剂量 0.5 mg/kg,储备液为 1 mL 中含 40 mg。按 1 kg = 2.2 lb 计算,你应给予多少容量 V? 保留两位小数。
医嘱要求以 120 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一组输液以 28 滴/分的速度经 20 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 750 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含 100 单位普通胰岛素、容量 100 mL 的输液以 5 mL/h 输注。患者每小时接受多少单位 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dobutamine 500 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 29 mL/h 输注。患者体重 68 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 120 mL/h 输注。到 06:00 时已输入 300 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 是; 行走辅助: 无、卧床休息或由护士协助; 静脉输液或封管: 是; 步态: 虚弱; 精神状态: 高估或忘记自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 23 次/分,SpO₂ 94%吸室内空气,血压 112/68 mmHg,脉搏 40 次/分,仅对疼痛有反应,体温 37.3 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.55,PaCO₂ 50 mmHg (6.7 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 42 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
练习数值:Na⁺ 132,Cl⁻ 102,HCO₃⁻ 12 mmol/L。使用 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) 计算 Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻)。保留两位小数。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这条 II 导联心电图显示房室传导阻滞,所以心房和心室以不同的频率搏动。测量 P–P 间期,求出心房率(单位:次/分,1500 法,取整数)。
答案: D · 使用对面部表情等行为评分的观察性疼痛工具
观察性工具对面部表情、发声、肢体语言和行为变化等征象评分。痴呆患者的疼痛常常被忽视。
答案: A · Assessment(评估)
SBAR:Situation(现状)、Background(背景)、Assessment(你对问题的临床判断)和 Recommendation(你需要什么)。
答案: B · A trained sitter or video monitoring with staff nearby
Close observation by a sitter or video monitoring allows staff to step in quickly, without restricting the patient. It is often combined with reorientation and family presence.
答案: D · Tell the surgeon and team, search for the item, and image the patient per policy if it is not found
A count discrepancy is reported to the whole team at once. Closure waits while the field, wound and room are searched, and an x-ray is taken per policy if the item is still missing.
答案: B · Rising systolic pressure, slow pulse and irregular breathing
Cushing’s triad (high systolic pressure with a widening pulse pressure, bradycardia and irregular respirations) is a late sign of raised intracranial pressure and needs urgent escalation.
答案: B · Turn her onto her left side
Lying on the back lets the uterus compress the inferior vena cava, reducing blood return to the heart. Turning to the left side relieves the pressure and restores the blood pressure.
答案: A · Removing hair, if needed, with clippers rather than a razor
Razors cause micro-abrasions that increase infection risk, so hair is removed only if necessary with clippers just before surgery. Keeping patients warm and good skin preparation also help.
答案: D · Postural hypotension
A fall in systolic pressure of 20 mmHg or more (here 26 mmHg) on standing, especially with symptoms, indicates postural hypotension. Causes include medicines, dehydration and autonomic problems.
答案: B · Creatine kinase (CK)
Statins can cause myopathy and, rarely, rhabdomyolysis. A raised CK confirms muscle injury, and the provider may stop the statin. The nurse also asks about dark urine, which can signal myoglobin in the urine.核对依据: Creatine Kinase · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2023)
答案: C · 先补钾,按方案等水平安全后再用胰岛素
胰岛素会使钾进一步降低,并可引起危险的心律失常。常见指南是先补钾,并推迟胰岛素,直到水平至少达到约 3.3 mEq/L,同时继续静脉补液。护士应遵循医院方案并监测心电图。核对依据: Ketoacidosis · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2023)
答案: C · A patient with a seizure disorder or an eating disorder
Bupropion increases the risk of seizures, especially with bulimia or anorexia, where electrolyte disturbances are common. It is used for depression and as a smoking cessation aid.
答案: A · Fluoxetine and its active metabolite have very long half-lives
Norfluoxetine, the active metabolite of fluoxetine, stays in the body for weeks. A long washout is needed before an MAOI to avoid serotonin syndrome.
答案: C · Bilevel NIV adds a higher inspiratory pressure, helping remove CO₂
CPAP gives one continuous pressure that splints the airways and alveoli open, improving oxygenation (for example in pulmonary oedema or OSA). Bilevel NIV adds a higher inspiratory pressure that supports ventilation, so it is used for hypercapnic respiratory failure such as COPD exacerbations.
答案: B · Stop the PCA, support breathing, give oxygen and get naloxone
Sedation and slow breathing are warning signs of opioid toxicity. The nurse stops the opioid, stimulates the patient, opens the airway, gives oxygen, calls for help and gives naloxone per protocol. Naloxone is short-acting, so the patient is monitored for recurrence.
答案: D · 胰岛素使钾进入细胞,因此血钾可能迅速下降
DKA 患者全身钾严重缺乏,即使最初血清钾正常或偏高。胰岛素使钾转移到细胞内,可引起危险的低钾血症。应经常检测钾,并按医嘱加入液体;如果钾很低,可能要推迟胰岛素,直到开始补钾。
答案: C · Fluid is being removed too quickly
Muscle cramps and hypotension during dialysis are often due to rapid or excessive fluid removal. Staff may reduce the ultrafiltration rate and give saline per protocol. The dry weight may need to be reviewed.
答案: D · Nausea triggered by reminders of treatment before it is given
Anticipatory nausea is a conditioned response after previous poorly controlled nausea, triggered by sights or smells linked to treatment. Good antiemetic control from the first cycle helps prevent it; relaxation techniques and anxiolytics may help.
答案: C · A bulk-forming laxative used on its own
Bulk-forming laxatives need good fluid intake and mobility and can worsen constipation or cause obstruction without them. They do not counter the effect of opioids on gut movement, so stimulant or osmotic laxatives are preferred.
答案: A · They have a large surface area and little fat
Newborns have a large surface area relative to body mass, little subcutaneous fat and thin skin with blood vessels near the surface. They rely on brown fat and cannot shiver effectively.
答案: D · 检测婴儿的血糖
高危新生儿的烦躁不安和吃奶差提示低血糖。床旁血糖检测可指导处理,如按规程喂养或使用葡萄糖凝胶,血糖持续偏低则上报。
答案: B · Keep the baby out of direct sun, in the shade, with light clothing and a hat
Babies under about 6 months should be kept out of direct sunlight, protected by shade, clothing and hats. Sunscreen is mainly for older infants and children, on skin that cannot be covered.
答案: B · "If she has a bad reaction, I'll give an antihistamine and wait an hour before using the auto-injector."
Adrenaline is the first treatment for anaphylaxis and must be given without delay; antihistamines do not treat airway swelling or shock. Checking expiry dates, reading labels and calling emergency services after use are correct.
答案: C · 承认他的恐惧,不对该信念进行争论,并把重点放在基于现实的话题上
争论会强化妄想并损害信任,附和也会强化妄想。应回应其情绪(恐惧),坚持现实,并提供实际的选择,如密封或包装好的食物。
答案: D · Work with her to clear the exits first, then agree a gradual plan together
Forced clear-outs cause great distress and the clutter usually returns. Collaborative, gradual work focusing first on safety, such as fire exits and fall risks, with involvement of relevant services, is more effective.
答案: m = 4.6 kg
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 75 mL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: D = 375 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: V = 0.23 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: R = 40 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: t = 8.9 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: D = 5 件/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 14.2 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 1110 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 1.7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 1 h 40 min,所以袋子大约在 07:40 输完。
答案: MFS = 60
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 高
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
答案: 部分代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: Δ 比值 = 0.5
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
低于 1:合并正常阴离子间隙酸中毒。
答案: 交界性心律
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 心房率 = 79 bpm
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
2:1 房室传导阻滞:每隔一个 P 波不下传,所以心房率是心室率的两倍。
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