感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
伤口愈合各阶段的正确顺序是什么?
根据《2005年心智能力法》(英格兰和威尔士),下列哪一项是判断一个人能否作出决定的测试内容?
病房暴发诺如病毒感染期间,工作人员在护理患者后应采用哪种手卫生方法?
Several patients arrive with suspected inhalational anthrax after a deliberate release. Which precautions are needed for their care?
A patient is booked for a CT scan with iodinated contrast. Which of the patient’s medications may need to be held according to protocol?
哪项委派适合护理助理?
Which is the correct technique for using a metered-dose inhaler without a spacer?
A patient with central chest pain has ST elevation on the 12-lead ECG. What is the main aim of urgent treatment?
A patient scheduled for surgery this morning has a potassium of 3.0 mEq/L on pre-operative tests. What should the nurse do?
A patient with SIADH is on fluid restriction. Which task can the RN delegate to unlicensed assistive personnel (UAP), such as a nursing or healthcare assistant?
Which blood test is commonly used to monitor a continuous infusion of unfractionated heparin?
Ten days after chemotherapy, a patient has a temperature of 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) but says she feels fine. What should happen?
Why does a large, rapidly forming pericardial effusion lower the blood pressure?
An older patient with three rib fractures is breathing shallowly and refuses to cough because of pain. What is the priority intervention?
Why is IV calcium gluconate given in severe hyperkalaemia?
A patient with Parkinson's disease is nil by mouth after abdominal surgery. Their levodopa is due. What is the best action?
Which is a recognised cause of anaphylaxis during surgery?
全身麻醉期间,一名患者出现下颌强直、呼气末 CO₂ 升高和心动过速,随后体温迅速上升。哪种药物是特异性治疗?
After a circumcision, which finding should be reported?
在产后病房,哪项发现应立即上报?
A child's tonic–clonic seizure has lasted more than 5 minutes. What should the nurse do?
在脑室腹腔分流术后的儿童中,哪项发现需要立即跟进?
哪项原则适用于身体约束的使用?
A patient with borderline personality disorder and frequent self-harm says, "I'm going to kill myself tonight," after an argument on the phone. A colleague says, "She always says that." What should the nurse do?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 97.8 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液2 tsp,每天两次,共 10 天。按1 tsp = 5 mL,整个疗程需要多少 mLV?
一名体重 36 kg 的儿童按 4 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 40 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
处方剂量为 350 微克。安瓿浓度为 1 mg/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
滴注以 25 gtt/min 的速度通过滴系数为 15 gtt/mL 的输液器。患者在 6 小时内接受多少毫升 V?
一组输液以 50 滴/分的速度经 60 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 900 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 25 000 单位,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 15 units/kg/h,患者体重 96 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 88 kg 的患者的医嘱为norepinephrine 8 mcg/min。输液袋中含 4 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 80 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 60 mL/h 输注。到 10:00 时已输入 50 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位头部损伤后的练习患者仅对压迫(疼痛刺激)睁眼,只发出无法理解的声音,如呻吟,最佳运动反应表现为:手臂异常屈曲(去皮质姿势)。 算出 GCS 并据此对头部损伤分级。点击你的答案。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 16 次/分,SpO₂ 96%吸室内空气,血压 136/82 mmHg,脉搏 40 次/分,清醒,体温 36.1 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 18 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
在海平面,某练习血气取自吸入 24% 氧气时,显示 PaO₂ 52 mmHg (6.9 kPa),PaCO₂ 41 mmHg (5.5 kPa)。用 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 求A–a 梯度。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
答案: B · 止血期、炎症期、增生期、成熟期
愈合从止血开始,然后炎症清除碎屑,增生期形成新组织,成熟期(重塑期)在数月内使瘢痕变得更坚固。
答案: B · 他们能否理解、记住并权衡信息,以及表达决定
如果一个人因心智或大脑功能障碍而不能理解、记住、运用或权衡信息,或不能表达其决定,就缺乏作出该决定的能力。一个不明智的选择本身并不能说明缺乏能力。
答案: B · 用肥皂和水洗手
酒精手消毒剂不能可靠地杀灭诺如病毒,所以应使用肥皂和水洗手,通过机械作用将其清除。同时还应采取接触传播预防和彻底的环境清洁。
答案: D · Standard precautions, because it is not spread from person to person
Inhalational anthrax is caught by breathing in spores from the environment and does not spread from person to person, so standard precautions are enough. Decontamination may still be needed for people with spores on their skin or clothing.
答案: D · Metformin
If contrast causes kidney injury, metformin can build up and cause lactic acidosis. Protocols often hold metformin around the procedure, especially when kidney function is reduced.
答案: C · 为稳定的患者采集常规尿标本
为稳定的患者采集常规尿标本是可预测、可委派的。确认管道位置、吞咽筛查前喂食以及监测输血开始阶段都需要护理评估。
答案: B · Breathe out, then breathe in slowly and deeply while pressing the canister, then hold
The patient breathes out, seals the lips around the mouthpiece, starts breathing in slowly, presses the canister and continues a deep breath, then holds it for about 10 seconds. Spacers make coordination easier.
答案: C · Restoring blood flow through the blocked coronary artery quickly
ST-elevation myocardial infarction means a coronary artery is usually completely blocked. Urgent reperfusion by primary PCI, or thrombolysis if PCI is not available in time, limits the amount of heart muscle that dies.
答案: D · Report it to the surgical team before surgery
Hypokalemia increases the risk of arrhythmias during anesthesia and can prolong muscle weakness. Abnormal pre-operative results are reported to the surgeon and anesthetist, who decide whether to correct it or delay surgery.核对依据: Hypokalemia · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2025)
答案: C · Measuring and recording intake and output
UAP can measure and record intake and output and weigh the patient, then report the values to the RN. Assessing mental status, teaching and making decisions about laboratory monitoring need nursing judgment and remain with the RN.
答案: A · Activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT)
Unfractionated heparin is often monitored with the aPTT, and the infusion rate is adjusted according to a protocol. Low-molecular-weight heparins usually do not need routine aPTT checks.
答案: A · Urgent cultures and IV broad-spectrum antibiotics without delay
Fever during neutropenia is treated as a medical emergency because infection can progress rapidly. Cultures are taken and empirical IV antibiotics are started promptly, ideally within one hour.
答案: D · It compresses the heart and stops the ventricles filling
The pericardial sac is fairly inelastic, so fluid that collects quickly raises the pressure around the heart. The ventricles cannot fill in diastole, stroke volume falls and the blood pressure drops. This is cardiac tamponade, treated by pericardiocentesis.
答案: D · Effective analgesia so they can breathe deeply and cough
Pain from rib fractures causes shallow breathing and poor coughing, leading to atelectasis and pneumonia, especially in older adults. Good analgesia (sometimes regional blocks), deep breathing, coughing with support and early mobilisation are key. Chest strapping restricts breathing and is not used.
答案: D · It protects the heart from arrhythmias
Calcium stabilises the cardiac cell membrane and reduces the risk of arrhythmias within minutes. It does not change the potassium level, so other treatments are needed to shift and remove potassium.
答案: C · Contact the prescriber or pharmacist about another route
Omitting Parkinson's medication can cause severe rigidity, swallowing failure and, rarely, a life-threatening withdrawal syndrome. Alternatives such as giving it by nasogastric tube or a dopamine agonist patch should be arranged urgently.
答案: A · Chlorhexidine skin preparation
Common causes of perioperative anaphylaxis include neuromuscular blockers, antibiotics, chlorhexidine and latex. Allergies are documented, and suspected reactions are investigated afterwards.
答案: C · 丹曲林
恶性高热的治疗包括停用触发药物、用 100% 氧气过度通气、静脉给予丹曲林(减少肌质网钙释放)、主动降温,以及治疗高钾血症和心律失常。琥珀酰胆碱是触发因素。
答案: B · Active bleeding that soaks a nappy
A yellow film is normal granulation tissue, and mild swelling and fussiness are common. Persistent bleeding, signs of infection or failure to pass urine should be reported.
答案: B · 产妇在 15 分钟内浸透一大块卫生垫
15 分钟内浸透一块卫生垫属于出血过多,需要立即评估并上报。其他发现在产后早期都是正常的。
答案: A · Give the prescribed rescue medicine and call for emergency help
A seizure lasting 5 minutes or more is treated as possible status epilepticus. Rescue medicine such as buccal or intranasal midazolam, or rectal or intranasal diazepam, is given according to the care plan, and emergency help is called. The child is never restrained and nothing is put in the mouth.
答案: B · 头痛、反复呕吐和嗜睡加重
头痛、呕吐、易激惹和嗜睡提示分流管堵塞或感染导致颅内压升高。在婴儿中,囟门膨隆和头围增大也是征象。
答案: D · 这是限制较少的措施失败后的最后手段,需密切监测,并在安全时尽快解除
仅在降级处理失败后,为防止迫在眉睫的伤害,并依照法律和政策才使用约束。应持续监测患者的呼吸、循环和健康状况,并记录一切。
答案: B · Carry out a full suicide risk assessment, as with any patient who expresses suicidal intent
People with borderline personality disorder have a significantly raised risk of suicide. Every statement of suicidal intent must be assessed; labelling it as attention-seeking can lead to missed risk.
答案: T = 36.6 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 200 mL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 3.6 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 0.35 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: V = 600 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: t = 18 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 28.8 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 30 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: U = 1.21 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 7.5 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 7 h 30 min,所以袋子大约在 17:30 输完。
答案: 重度
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
答案: PaCO₂ = 35 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: A–a 梯度 = 67.87 mmHg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 心房扑动,3:1 传导
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 室性心动过速
室性节律:室性心动过速是连续三个或以上宽大(0.12 s 或以上)的波群,频率超过 100 次/分,通常为 150–250 次/分,节律规则,没有相关的 P 波。心室颤动是紊乱、不规则的波形,无法辨认 P 波、QRS 波群或 T 波,也没有可计数的频率。心脏停搏是几乎平直的线,没有心室活动;平直线一定要通过检查患者、导联和增益并换一个导联来确认。在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律,心脏停搏则不是。
在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律。这里只是识别练习。
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