感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
When cleaning a surgical incision, in which direction should the nurse clean?
A patient on regular paracetamol (acetaminophen) also takes an over-the-counter cold and flu remedy. Why is this a concern?
Why is blood glucose control important around the time of surgery?
A nurse notices that the pharmacy has sent the wrong dose and corrects it before giving it. Should the event be reported?
在病房发生心脏骤停时,确认患者无反应且没有正常呼吸之后,首先做什么?
A patient with Guillain-Barré syndrome has weakness that is spreading up from the legs. Which assessment has the highest priority?
Which is a recognised risk factor for postoperative nausea and vomiting?
A severely hypothermic patient is in cardiac arrest. Why is resuscitation usually continued until they are rewarmed?
A patient on hemodialysis has an arteriovenous (AV) fistula in the left arm. Where should the nurse draw routine blood samples?
A woman with preeclampsia is receiving IV magnesium sulfate. Her urine output has fallen and her creatinine is rising. Why is this a concern?
为什么长期口服的糖皮质激素不应突然停药?
A patient with latent tuberculosis feels well and is not infectious. Why is treatment such as isoniazid still offered?
A woman with hypertension who takes lisinopril says she is planning a pregnancy. What should the nurse advise?
A patient with severe asthma develops a stable narrow-complex tachycardia, and IV adenosine is prescribed. What should the nurse do?
A patient who has had type 1 diabetes for 30 years says they no longer feel the warning signs of a hypo. What is this called?
A patient's glucose is 6.2 mmol/L (112 mg/dL) at 03:00 and 12 mmol/L (216 mg/dL) before breakfast. No hypoglycaemia occurred overnight. What is the most likely explanation?
手术后哪个时期最可能发生伤口裂开?
一名患者回肠造口周围的皮肤发红、糜烂、渗液,造口袋经常渗漏。最可能的原因是什么?
A woman with epilepsy is planning a pregnancy. Which advice is most appropriate?
A newborn is pale, has a heart rate of 170/min and weak pulses after a difficult vacuum birth. The scalp is boggy and swelling across the sutures is increasing. What should the nurse suspect?
婴儿的哪项发现提示发育性髋关节发育不良?
The 7-year-old brother of a child with cancer has started misbehaving at school. What is the most likely explanation?
为什么三环类抗抑郁药过量时特别危险?
一名患者请护士保证不要告诉任何人她正计划自杀。最佳回应是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 12:00 AM。哪个条目是 24 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次维持输液以 100 mL/h 的速度不间断运行。24 小时内输注多少升V?
一支肾上腺素安瓿标示为 1:1000(1 mg/mL)。医嘱为 0.3 mg 肌内注射(IM),用于严重过敏反应。你应抽取多少体积 V?
一名患者身高 154 cm,体重 53 kg。医嘱为 250 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 4 小时内输入 1500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
将 250 mg 药物稀释于 250 mL 中,通过滴系数为 15 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。医嘱为每小时 20 mg。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份输液含普通胰岛素 100 单位,容量 100 mL。医嘱为 0.05 units/kg/h,患者体重 82 kg。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dopamine 800 mg、容量 500 mL 的输液以 35 mL/h 输注。患者体重 58 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体于 11:00 开始用输液泵以 75 mL/h 输注。到 12:00 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 完全受限; 潮湿程度: 持续潮湿; 活动: 经常步行; 活动能力: 非常受限; 营养: 可能不足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 潜在问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 109 kg,身高 164 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 14 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
练习数值:Na⁺ 136,Cl⁻ 108,HCO₃⁻ 18 mmol/L,白蛋白 31 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Bazett 公式 QTc = QT/√RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
这条 II 导联心电图显示房室传导阻滞,所以心房和心室以不同的频率搏动。QRS 波群是规则的:求出心室率(单位:次/分,1500 法,取整数)。
答案: D · From the incision outwards, using a new swab for each stroke
The incision is the cleanest area, so cleaning moves from it outwards. Using a fresh swab each time avoids bringing skin bacteria back into the wound.
答案: D · Many cold remedies also contain paracetamol, risking liver damage
Paracetamol is in many combination products. Taking several at once can push the total over the safe daily maximum and cause liver damage, so patients are taught to check labels.
答案: D · High glucose impairs white cell function and raises the risk of surgical site infection
Hyperglycemia weakens neutrophil function and slows healing, so it increases the risk of surgical site infection. Keeping glucose in the target range is part of infection prevention for surgical patients.
答案: D · Yes, near misses are reported so system weaknesses can be fixed
Near misses show where errors can slip through and are reported in the same way as errors that reach the patient. Learning from them prevents future harm.
答案: B · 呼救并开始胸外按压
呼救(骤停团队和除颤器)并立即开始高质量的按压。长时间检查脉搏、延误或测量血压都是浪费时间。如有可能,应事先知道复苏状态。
答案: B · Breathing strength, such as vital capacity and the ability to cough
Guillain-Barré syndrome causes ascending weakness that can involve the respiratory muscles. Falling vital capacity or a weak cough can mean the patient needs ventilation, so breathing is monitored closely.
答案: C · Use of opioids after surgery
Known risk factors include opioids, female sex, being a non-smoker, previous PONV or motion sickness and longer general anaesthetics. High-risk patients may be given preventive antiemetics.
答案: A · The cold protects the brain, so recovery may be possible after long resuscitation
Hypothermia reduces the brain's oxygen needs, and good recoveries have occurred after long resuscitation. Death is usually not confirmed until the patient has been rewarmed, unless injuries are clearly not survivable.
答案: C · From the right arm
Venipuncture, blood pressure readings and IV lines are avoided in the arm with an AV fistula or graft, to prevent damage, clotting and infection of the access. Only the dialysis team uses the access, for dialysis.
答案: D · Magnesium is excreted by the kidneys, so it can build up to toxic levels
Magnesium is cleared by the kidneys, so falling urine output and rising creatinine raise the risk of toxicity. The nurse checks deep tendon reflexes, respiratory rate and level of consciousness, reports the findings and keeps calcium gluconate available as the antidote.核对依据: Magnesium Toxicity (StatPearls) · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2026)
答案: D · 肾上腺受到抑制,可能无法产生足够的皮质醇
激素治疗抑制下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺轴。突然停药可能引起肾上腺危象,因此剂量要逐渐减少。
答案: C · To prevent progression to active TB later
People with latent TB carry dormant bacteria that can reactivate, especially if immunity weakens. Treatment reduces the risk of active disease, which would be infectious.
答案: D · Discuss switching medicine with the prescriber before trying to conceive
ACE inhibitors and ARBs are contraindicated in pregnancy because they can damage fetal kidneys and cause other harm. Women of childbearing age should be counselled and switched to a suitable alternative, such as labetalol or nifedipine, before conception or as soon as pregnancy is confirmed.
答案: D · Question the prescription, as adenosine can cause bronchospasm
Adenosine can trigger severe bronchospasm and is generally avoided in asthma. Alternatives such as verapamil may be used, depending on the patient. The nurse raises the concern with the prescriber before giving it.
答案: D · Hypoglycaemia unawareness
Long duration of diabetes and frequent hypos reduce the adrenaline response, so warning symptoms are lost. This greatly increases the risk of severe hypos. Strict avoidance of hypos for some weeks can partly restore awareness, and glucose sensors with alarms help.
答案: B · The dawn phenomenon from early-morning hormones
In the dawn phenomenon, cortisol and growth hormone rise in the early morning and push glucose up without a preceding hypo. A night-time hypo followed by rebound hyperglycaemia would suggest the Somogyi effect. The prescriber can adjust the insulin regimen.
答案: D · 术后约 5–10 天
伤口裂开最常发生在第 5–10 天左右,此时伤口依赖缝线和早期胶原。危险因素包括肥胖、营养不良、糖尿病、感染、使用类固醇、吸烟、咳嗽和用力。
答案: A · 排出物接触皮肤,常因底盘不合适
渗漏的排出物引起的刺激性皮炎是最常见的造口周围皮肤问题,尤其是回肠造口。应重新测量造口,调整开口和用具(如凸面底盘或密封圈),并使用皮肤保护,最好有造口护士参与。糜烂的皮肤也会使用具粘贴不牢,加重渗漏。
答案: A · Review her medicines with her doctor before conception
Preconception review allows a switch to the lowest-risk effective drug, often at the lowest effective dose, and higher-dose folic acid. Most women can breastfeed while taking antiepileptics.
答案: A · Subgaleal haemorrhage
A subgaleal haemorrhage is bleeding under the scalp aponeurosis. It crosses suture lines, can grow rapidly and can cause hypovolaemic shock. It is an emergency, unlike caput or cephalhaematoma.
答案: D · 大腿或臀部皮纹不对称,髋关节外展受限
体征包括皮纹不对称、外展受限、一侧腿明显较短,以及 Ortolani 或 Barlow 试验阳性。婴儿期的治疗常使用 Pavlik 吊带。
答案: A · He may feel worried, jealous or left out and needs attention and information
Siblings of seriously ill children often feel neglected, anxious, guilty or jealous and may show this through behaviour changes. Family-centred care includes giving siblings age-appropriate information, involvement and time with parents.
答案: C · 可引起致命的心律失常和惊厥
三环类药物过量会引起心律失常、QRS 增宽、低血压、惊厥和昏迷。对有自杀风险的患者,可限制处方的数量。
答案: B · 亲切地解释你不能为她保守这个秘密,因为她的安全很重要,你需要告知团队
对于危及生命的风险,护士不得承诺保密。诚实地说明保密的限度,同时保持支持,才能保证患者的安全并维持信任。
答案: 00:00
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 2.4 L
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 0.3 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
美国的标签现在标示 mg/mL(1 mg/mL = 1:1000;0.1 mg/mL = 1:10 000)。切勿静脉推注 1 mg/mL 的肾上腺素。
答案: D = 376.4 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 94 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:94 滴/分。
答案: R = 5 gtt/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 4.1 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 16.1 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 1070 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 425 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 12
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 肥胖 III 级
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: PaCO₂ = 29 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: AGc = 12.25 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: QTc = 0.48 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
超过男性(约 0.45 s)和女性(约 0.46 s)的通常上限:延长。(480 ms)
答案: 心室率 = 44 bpm
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
三度阻滞,伴窄 QRS 交界性逸搏(通常为 40–60 次/分)。
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