感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient you are walking with starts to fall. What should you do?
一名老年患者身上有原因不明、新旧不一的瘀青,而照护者总是替其回答问题。护士应该怎么做?
A nurse who never had BCG vaccine has a positive tuberculin skin test for the first time. The chest x-ray is clear and there are no symptoms. What does this most likely mean?
A patient on contact precautions for MRSA has become withdrawn and says, “Everyone avoids me.” What is the best nursing action?
A patient with a head injury is being monitored. Which set of findings suggests rising intracranial pressure?
A patient admitted with suspected appendicitis says the pain suddenly got better, but now the abdomen is rigid and the heart rate is rising. What does this suggest?
一名患者有绞痛样腹痛、腹胀、呕吐,两天未排便排气。可能的问题是什么?
Why is a patient kept under observation for several hours after successful treatment of anaphylaxis?
A patient is scheduled for a liver biopsy. Which laboratory results should the nurse check before the procedure?
A patient with a round face, central weight gain and purple stretch marks has a glucose of 210 mg/dL (11.7 mmol/L) and a potassium of 3.1 mEq/L. Which condition fits best?
下列哪一项是长期口服糖皮质激素的著名不良反应?
一名阿司匹林(水杨酸盐)过量早期的患者有耳鸣并呼吸急促。典型的酸碱紊乱模式是什么?
A patient who had a leg amputation says they feel burning pain in the missing foot. What is the best response?
A nurse receives handover on four patients. Which patient should be seen first?
A patient with multiple sclerosis says their symptoms get worse after a hot bath. What should the nurse explain?
After a TURP, a patient on bladder irrigation has bladder spasms. The drainage has slowed and contains clots, and the bag holds less than the irrigant given. What should the nurse do first?
Which finding suggests a deep tissue pressure injury?
A patient with three fractured ribs is taking shallow breaths because of pain. Why is effective analgesia a priority?
1 分钟时,新生儿心率为 90 次/分。在 APGAR 评分中,心率得几分?
At a booking visit, a woman says she drinks heavily most weekends. Which nursing response is most appropriate?
A child with a known peanut allergy is starting school. What is the most important step?
The mother of a 6-week-old says the baby cries for hours and she fears she might lose control. What is the best advice?
一名患者每天服用苯二氮䓬类药物已有数月。为什么不能突然停药?
Two days after surgery, a 79-year-old woman is quiet and drowsy, stares into space and gives muddled answers that vary through the day. Her daughter says she was sharp before. What is most likely?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名新生儿体重 6 lb 4 oz。按 1 lb = 16 oz 和 1 kg = 2.2 lb,求以千克表示的体重m。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 17:25 开始,到次日早晨 02:20 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少小时t?答案以小数表示小时数,取到两位小数。
一名体重 26 kg 的儿童按 7.5 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 25 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一名患者身高 147 cm,体重 40 kg。医嘱为 175 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
医嘱要求在 10 小时内输入 1000 mL。8 小时后你发现袋中还剩 250 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
医嘱要求在 10 小时内输入 500 mL。2 小时后你发现袋中还剩 460 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 原来的泵速必须提高百分之多少 Δ?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 58 kg 的患者推注肝素 60 units/kg。药瓶规格为 5 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 85 kg 的患者的医嘱为nitroglycerin 20 mcg/min。输液袋中含 25 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 50 mL/h 输注。到 13:30 时已输入 250 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 12 次/分,SpO₂ 97%正在补充吸氧,血压 92/56 mmHg,脉搏 132 次/分,清醒,体温 37.7 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 90 kg,身高 192 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.54,PaCO₂ 23 mmHg (3.1 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 19 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
练习数值:Na⁺ 144,Cl⁻ 103,HCO₃⁻ 21 mmol/L,白蛋白 28 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
依次按五个步骤解读这条 II 导联心电图:心率、节律、P 波、PR 间期、QRS 时限。你在哪一步发现第一个异常?点击它。
答案: A · Ease them gently to the floor while protecting their head
Trying to stop a fall can injure both the nurse and the patient. The nurse widens their stance, supports the patient and guides them down, protecting the head.
答案: D · 记录所见情况,并按照本单位的保护(safeguarding)程序处理
新旧不一的瘀青和控制欲强的照护者可能是虐待的迹象。护士应尽可能单独与患者交谈,准确记录事实,并通过保护程序报告。
答案: C · Latent TB infection, which is not contagious
A positive skin test with no symptoms and a normal chest x-ray suggests latent TB infection. The person cannot spread TB but should be evaluated for treatment to prevent active disease later.
答案: B · Explain why the precautions are needed and plan regular, unhurried time in the room
Isolation can cause loneliness, anxiety and depression, and patients in isolation may get less contact with staff. The nurse explains the reason for the precautions, spends planned time with the patient and supports visits from people who follow the precautions.
答案: A · Rising systolic pressure, slow pulse and irregular breathing
Cushing’s triad (high systolic pressure with a widening pulse pressure, bradycardia and irregular respirations) is a late sign of raised intracranial pressure and needs urgent escalation.
答案: D · The appendix may have ruptured, causing peritonitis
A sudden ease in pain followed by a rigid abdomen and a rising pulse can mean rupture and peritonitis. This is a surgical emergency, so the nurse reports at once.
答案: C · 肠梗阻
肠梗阻引起腹胀、绞痛、呕吐和停止排便排气。患者通常需禁食,并留置鼻胃管进行胃减压。
答案: B · Symptoms can return later in a biphasic reaction
Some patients have a second wave of symptoms hours after the first, called a biphasic reaction. Observation, an adrenaline auto-injector where indicated and allergy referral are part of safe discharge.
答案: A · Platelet count and PT/INR
Liver biopsy carries a risk of bleeding, and liver disease often lowers platelets and clotting factors. Platelets and PT/INR are checked beforehand, and abnormal results are reported so they can be corrected or the procedure postponed.核对依据: Liver biopsy · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: A · Cushing syndrome
Excess cortisol raises glucose, causes central obesity, a round face and purple striae, and has some mineralocorticoid effect that lowers potassium. Adrenal insufficiency causes low glucose and high potassium.核对依据: Hypercortisolism (Cushing Syndrome) · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2025); Hypokalemia · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2025)
答案: C · 骨质疏松
长期使用糖皮质激素会减少骨形成并增加骨折风险。它们还会引起体重增加、血糖升高、高血压和感染风险增加。
答案: B · 先呼吸性碱中毒,后代谢性酸中毒
水杨酸盐刺激呼吸,早期引起呼吸性碱中毒。随后它们干扰细胞代谢,引起阴离子间隙增高的代谢性酸中毒。成人常表现为混合型。
答案: C · Explain that phantom limb pain is real and arrange treatment
Phantom limb pain is common after amputation and arises from changes in nerves and the brain. It is real and treated with analgesia, including drugs for neuropathic pain, plus measures such as mirror therapy. It does not mean infection.
答案: C · A patient on day 1 after surgery who is newly restless, RR 30/min, SpO₂ 88% on 4 L/min
New restlessness, tachypnoea and hypoxaemia despite oxygen suggest acute deterioration such as a PE, pneumonia or bleeding, so this patient is seen first. SpO₂ 89% is within target for a stable COPD patient, a mild fever on antibiotics is expected, and the asthma patient is well.
答案: A · Heat can briefly worsen MS symptoms, which settle when they cool down
Heat sensitivity (Uhthoff's phenomenon) is common in MS. A rise in body temperature slows conduction in demyelinated nerves and temporarily worsens symptoms. It is not a relapse, and the symptoms settle with cooling.
答案: C · Suspect a clot in the catheter and follow the protocol
Clots blocking the catheter make the bladder distend, causing pain and spasms. The nurse checks for kinks, adjusts the irrigation rate per protocol, performs a bladder washout if trained and escalates if not cleared.
答案: D · Intact skin that is purple or maroon over a bony area
A deep tissue injury appears as persistent purple, maroon or dark discolouration, or a blood-filled blister, from pressure and shear on underlying tissue. It may quickly turn into a deep wound.
答案: C · Shallow breathing can lead to atelectasis and pneumonia
Uncontrolled chest wall pain prevents deep breaths and coughing, leading to atelectasis, sputum retention and pneumonia, particularly in older adults. Multimodal analgesia, sometimes with regional blocks, and physiotherapy are used.
答案: C · 1
心率无则计 0 分,低于 100 次/分计 1 分,100 次/分或以上计 2 分。APGAR 的五项指标各计 0–2 分,因此每项最高为 2 分。
答案: A · Explain the risks and refer her for support to stop
Alcohol can harm the fetus throughout pregnancy, and stopping at any point reduces the risk. The nurse gives clear, non-judgemental information and refers her to support services.
答案: B · A written allergy action plan, with in-date auto-injectors and trained staff
Schools need an individual action plan describing symptoms and steps, staff trained to recognise anaphylaxis and give adrenaline, and auto-injectors that are always quickly available. Avoiding the allergen and not sharing food also help.
答案: D · Put the baby safely in the cot, take a few minutes' break and ask for support
Crying peaks at about 6–8 weeks and can be very stressful. Parents are taught that it is safe to put the baby down and take a break, never to shake a baby, and how to get help from partners, family or health services.
答案: B · 突然戒断可引起严重焦虑、失眠和惊厥
长期使用苯二氮䓬类药物会导致躯体依赖。突然停药可引起反跳性焦虑、震颤和惊厥,因此应逐渐减量。
答案: C · Hypoactive delirium
Hypoactive delirium presents with drowsiness, slowness and reduced activity, and is often missed or mistaken for depression. Acute onset, fluctuating course and inattention point to delirium.
答案: m = 2.84 kg
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: t = 8.92 h
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 7.8 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: D = 223.7 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 125 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: Δ = 15 %
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: V = 0.7 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 12 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: I = 1340 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 5 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 5 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 18:30 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 7
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 健康体重
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: 部分代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: AGc = 23 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: 一度房室传导阻滞
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 折旧率
每条心电图的五个步骤:1. 心率(300 法或 1500 法;若不规则则用 6 秒法);2. 节律:R–R 间期是否相等;3. P 波:是否存在、在 II 导联直立、每个 QRS 之前各有一个且形态一致;4. PR 间期:0.12–0.20 s 且恒定;5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s。五个步骤做完之后才命名节律。正常窦性心律五项全部符合:60–100 次/分,规则,每个 QRS 之前有直立 P 波,PR 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 低于 0.12 s。
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