感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
When cleaning a surgical incision, in which direction should the nurse clean?
Which pair of details is best for confirming a patient's identity before giving a medicine?
Which type of white blood cell is most often raised in viral infections?
护士发现抽错了药,但在给药前发现了。护士应怎么做?
A nurse teaches a patient about storing insulin at home. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
During JumpSTART triage, a child is not breathing after the airway is opened but has a palpable pulse. What is the next step?
Which advice should be given to a patient with a new permanent pacemaker?
A patient with a confirmed pulmonary embolism is started on anticoagulation. Which statement best explains its purpose?
A patient with hyperkalemia received IV regular insulin with dextrose. Which result must the nurse monitor closely over the next hours?
A patient taking an SGLT2 inhibitor has nausea and fast breathing. Glucose 190 mg/dL (10.5 mmol/L), pH 7.15, bicarbonate 10 mEq/L, blood ketones high. What is the most likely diagnosis?
A patient is starting doxazosin, an alpha-1 blocker. What should the nurse advise about the first dose?
A patient took a large paracetamol (acetaminophen) overdose 6 hours ago and feels well. Why is treatment still urgent?
一名心力衰竭患者问为什么要限制盐的摄入。下列哪项解释是正确的?
After chest trauma, a patient is hypotensive with reduced breath sounds on the left. Which finding suggests a haemothorax rather than a tension pneumothorax?
A stroke patient with dysphagia has been started on a modified diet. Which action best reduces the risk of aspiration?
A patient has erratic glucose readings. The nurse finds a soft, rubbery lump where they always inject. What is the most important teaching?
During the first infusion of a monoclonal antibody such as rituximab, which problem is most important to watch for?
一名使用阿片类药物 PCA 的患者经面罩吸氧。SpO₂ 97%,呼吸频率 11 次/分,但现在很难唤醒。护士应得出什么结论?
Which factors help start the newborn's first breath?
一名重度产后出血的女性正在接受子宫收缩剂治疗。早期加用哪种药物可减少出血所致的死亡?
If the MMR and varicella vaccines are not given on the same day, what is the general rule?
A child with cyanotic heart disease and polycythaemia has a fever and vomiting. Why is dehydration especially dangerous?
A patient says, "Nobody at work likes me." Which nurse response best reflects cognitive restructuring?
A patient who has worked well with the nurse for three weeks becomes angry and refuses to attend their sessions after being told that discharge is planned for next week. What is the best interpretation?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名新生儿体重 6 lb 12 oz。按 1 lb = 16 oz 和 1 kg = 2.2 lb,求以千克表示的体重m。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 18:15 开始,到次日早晨 01:50 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少分钟t?
一名体重 20 kg 的儿童按 2 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 10 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
你需要用 50%(w/v)储备液配制 1000 mL 5%(w/v)溶液。 你需要多少容量的储备液 V₁?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 6 小时内输入 1500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋液体在 250 mL 中含药 500 mg,以 25 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份输液含普通胰岛素 100 单位,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 0.05 units/kg/h,患者体重 54 kg。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dopamine 800 mg、容量 500 mL 的输液以 36 mL/h 输注。患者体重 81 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 150 mL/h 输注。到 10:00 时已输入 300 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 轻度受限; 潮湿程度: 很少潮湿; 活动: 经常步行; 活动能力: 完全不能活动; 营养: 可能不足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 潜在问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 28 次/分,SpO₂ 97%吸室内空气,血压 118/70 mmHg,脉搏 64 次/分,清醒,体温 37.0 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.36,PaCO₂ 33 mmHg (4.4 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 18 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
在海平面,某练习血气取自吸入 40% 氧气时,显示 PaO₂ 86 mmHg (11.5 kPa),PaCO₂ 35 mmHg (4.7 kPa)。用 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 求A–a 梯度。
这条 II 导联心电图条带显示窦性心律伴一次停顿。测量 停顿,即跨越停顿的 R–R 间期,单位为秒。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
答案: A · From the incision outwards, using a new swab for each stroke
The incision is the cleanest area, so cleaning moves from it outwards. Using a fresh swab each time avoids bringing skin bacteria back into the wound.
答案: A · Full name and date of birth, checked against the wristband
At least two personal identifiers, such as name, date of birth and hospital number, are checked with the patient and the wristband. Bed and room numbers change and are not identifiers.
答案: D · Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes increase in many viral infections. Neutrophils rise mainly with bacterial infections, and eosinophils with allergies and parasites.
答案: D · 丢弃该药,准备正确的药物,并上报未遂事件
未遂事件暴露了系统的薄弱环节,如包装相似或存放方式不当。上报可以在患者受到伤害之前消除风险。公正文化支持这样的上报。
答案: B · “I will keep my spare insulin in the freezer so it lasts longer.”
Freezing damages insulin, and frozen insulin should not be used. Unopened insulin is kept in the fridge, and heat and expired products are avoided.
答案: D · Give five rescue breaths; if breathing starts, tag the child red
In JumpSTART, an apneic child with a pulse gets five rescue breaths, because the cause is often respiratory. If breathing starts the child is immediate (red); if not, the child is expectant.
答案: A · Tell staff about the pacemaker before any MRI scan or procedure
Patients carry a device card and tell staff before MRI, surgery with diathermy or similar procedures. Arm movement on the pacemaker side is limited only for a short period after insertion.
答案: D · It stops the clot growing and prevents new clots while the body breaks it down
Anticoagulants prevent clot extension and new clots; the body's own fibrinolysis gradually breaks down the existing clot. Thrombolysis, which actively dissolves clots, is reserved for massive PE with shock.
答案: D · Blood glucose, because hypoglycemia can occur
Insulin shifts potassium into cells but also lowers glucose, and hypoglycemia can occur hours later, especially in kidney failure. Glucose is checked frequently, and potassium is rechecked, as the effect lasts only a few hours.核对依据: High potassium level · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: D · Euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis
SGLT2 inhibitors can cause DKA with only mildly raised glucose because glucose is lost in the urine. Ketones and acidosis must be checked in any unwell patient on these drugs, even with a near-normal glucose.核对依据: Ketones blood test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: C · Take it at bedtime, because it can cause dizziness and fainting
Alpha-1 blockers dilate blood vessels and can cause marked orthostatic hypotension after the first dose. Taking it at bedtime and rising slowly reduces the risk of falls.
答案: A · Liver damage appears 1–3 days later, and early treatment works best
Paracetamol overdose often causes few symptoms at first, while the toxic metabolite damages the liver. Liver injury peaks after about 3 days, so the decision to treat is based on the timed blood level, not on symptoms.
答案: C · 钠使身体潴留水分,加重淤血
钠潴留导致水潴留,增加循环血量、前负荷和淤血。限制钠(部分患者还需限制液体)有助于控制水肿和呼吸困难。具体限量由开处方者设定。
答案: B · Dullness to percussion on the affected side
Blood in the pleural space gives a dull percussion note, whereas air gives hyper-resonance. In haemothorax the neck veins are often flat because of blood loss; in tension pneumothorax they are distended. A massive haemothorax needs a large chest drain, blood replacement and surgical review.
答案: D · Sit the patient fully upright for meals and for a while afterwards
Sitting upright during and after meals helps food pass safely and reduces reflux and aspiration. Small mouthfuls, unhurried feeding and the textures advised by the speech and language therapist are also important.
答案: D · Use healthy sites and check glucose often, as less insulin may be needed
Lipohypertrophy causes poor and unpredictable absorption. When the patient switches to healthy tissue, more insulin is absorbed, so hypos can occur. Glucose is monitored closely, and doses may need to be reduced.
答案: A · An infusion reaction, such as fever, rigors or breathlessness
Infusion-related reactions are most common with the first dose. Premedication, a slow starting rate, close monitoring and readiness to stop the infusion and treat anaphylaxis are standard.
答案: D · 很可能是阿片类药物中毒;氧气可能掩盖了通气不足
补充氧气可使 SpO₂ 保持正常,而 CO₂ 却因通气不足而升高。镇静加深是阿片类药物中毒的早期征象。护士应停止 PCA,刺激患者,呼叫援助并遵循纳洛酮方案,密切监测呼吸频率、深度和镇静程度。
答案: A · Chemical, thermal, mechanical and sensory cues
Falling oxygen and rising carbon dioxide (chemical), cooler air (thermal), recoil of the chest after the birth canal (mechanical) and touch, light and sound (sensory) trigger the first breaths.
答案: A · 氨甲环酸
氨甲环酸是一种抗纤溶药。早期给药,最好在产后 3 小时内,可减少产后出血导致的死亡。肝素和阿司匹林会增加出血。
答案: D · Separate them by at least 4 weeks
Two live injected vaccines are given either on the same day or at least 4 weeks apart. A shorter gap can reduce the immune response to the second vaccine.
答案: A · It makes the blood even thicker and raises the risk of stroke and thrombosis
Polycythaemic blood is already viscous; dehydration concentrates it further and increases the risk of cerebral thrombosis and stroke. Fluid intake is monitored closely and IV fluids may be needed during illness.
答案: D · "What evidence do you have that nobody likes you?"
Cognitive restructuring helps the patient examine the evidence for and against a negative automatic thought, then develop a more balanced view. Reassurance or advice does not help the patient learn this skill.
答案: C · The patient is reacting to the coming end of the relationship
Anger, withdrawal or return of symptoms are common responses to termination. The nurse acknowledges the feelings, reviews progress and helps the patient prepare for the ending.
答案: m = 3.07 kg
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: t = 455 min
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 4 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V₁ = 100 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: R = 63 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:63 滴/分。
答案: D = 50 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 6.8 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 11.9 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 1030 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 1.3 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 1 h 20 min,所以袋子大约在 11:20 输完。
答案: B = 16
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: A–a 梯度 = 155.4 mmHg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 停顿 = 2.2 s
窄 QRS 心动过速与停顿:室上性心动过速(SVT)是规则的心动过速,约 150–250 次/分钟,QRS 波群较窄;P 波通常看不到,因为它们隐藏在 QRS 波群或 T 波中。成人静息时的窦性心动过速通常低于约 150 次/分钟,且每个 QRS 前都有可见的 P 波;伴 2:1 传导的心房扑动常在约 150 次/分钟,并显示锯齿波。窦性停搏是指窦房结暂时停止发放冲动:出现既无 P 波也无 QRS 的停顿,其长度不是 P–P 周期的整数倍(恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞)。
停顿中没有出现 P 波,且停顿不是 P–P 周期的整数倍:窦性停搏。恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞。
答案: 室性心动过速
室性节律:室性心动过速是连续三个或以上宽大(0.12 s 或以上)的波群,频率超过 100 次/分,通常为 150–250 次/分,节律规则,没有相关的 P 波。心室颤动是紊乱、不规则的波形,无法辨认 P 波、QRS 波群或 T 波,也没有可计数的频率。心脏停搏是几乎平直的线,没有心室活动;平直线一定要通过检查患者、导联和增益并换一个导联来确认。在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律,心脏停搏则不是。
在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律。这里只是识别练习。
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