感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
哪项措施有助于预防住院患者发生深静脉血栓?
一名患者 24 小时入量为 2400 mL,测得的总出量为 1800 mL。液体平衡是多少?
两名感染同一种病原体的患者入院,没有可用的单人间。下列哪项是可接受的做法?
Which patient with a suspected infection meets the qSOFA criteria that signal a higher risk of a poor outcome?
一名护理助理拒绝一项被委派的任务,说他们没有接受过这项任务的培训。护士最好的回应是什么?
A patient is going home on a new oral anticoagulant. There is only a short time for teaching. Which topic is most important?
Why are people with diabetes advised to have regular eye screening?
护理水封式胸腔引流时,哪项做法正确?
How does normal pregnancy usually affect serum creatinine?
A young woman with frequent self-induced vomiting has swollen salivary glands. Which laboratory pattern is most likely?
An Rh-negative mother gives birth to an Rh-positive baby. When is anti-D immunoglobulin usually given?
奥美拉唑等质子泵抑制剂的主要作用机制是什么?
A patient with heart failure is comfortable at rest but becomes breathless walking across a room. Which NYHA class fits best?
Which instruction from the registered nurse to a healthcare assistant (unlicensed assistive personnel) caring for a patient with COPD is most appropriate?
An 80-year-old with angina is diagnosed with hypothyroidism. How is levothyroxine usually started?
On day 6 after a subarachnoid haemorrhage, a patient becomes newly confused and develops weakness in one arm. The aneurysm was secured on day 1. What is the most likely cause?
Patients on immune checkpoint inhibitors may develop immune-related side effects. Which symptom should they report promptly?
After several days of a tight CPAP mask, a patient has a red, broken area on the bridge of the nose. What is this, and what should the nurse do?
Why is indomethacin generally not used as a tocolytic after about 32 weeks?
A term newborn has rapid breathing at 2 hours after a caesarean without labour. Saturation is normal, there is no fever and the chest X-ray shows fluid in the fissures. What is the most likely diagnosis?
用 FLACC 量表为一名儿童评分。总分的范围是多少?
A 14-year-old took a large overdose of paracetamol (acetaminophen) 4 hours ago and says she feels fine. What should the nurse understand?
应教导服用双硫仑的患者什么?
A patient in a catatonic stupor has not eaten or drunk anything for 24 hours and does not respond to speech. What is the priority nursing concern?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次体重换算得到 97.0032 kg。 本练习的规则是:体重取到最接近的十分之一千克。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液1 tbsp,每 8 小时一次,共 10 天。按1 tbsp = 15 mL,整个疗程需要多少 mLV?
一支肾上腺素预充式注射器标示为 1:10 000(0.1 mg/mL)。医嘱为心脏骤停时 1 mg 静脉注射(IV)。你应给多少体积 V?
一袋输液在 1000 mL 中含 40000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 1500 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
医嘱要求以 75 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一组输液以 42 滴/分的速度经 60 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 900 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 75 kg 的患者推注肝素 70 units/kg。药瓶规格为 5 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dobutamine 500 mg,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 5 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 52 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 80 mL/h 输注。到 19:30 时已输入 100 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 是; 行走辅助: 扶着家具; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 正常、卧床休息或轮椅; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 无、卧床休息或由护士协助; 静脉输液或封管: 是; 步态: 受损; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。使用分界值 0–24 低,25–44 中度,45 或以上高,点击跌倒风险等级。
某练习血气显示 PaCO₂ 54 mmHg (7.2 kPa)。利用规则:在急性呼吸性酸中毒中,PaCO₂ 每比 40 高出 10 mmHg,HCO₃⁻ 升高 1 mmol/L,以HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L 为起点,求预期HCO₃⁻。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.29,PaCO₂ 30 mmHg (4.0 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 14 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房与心室之间存在传导问题。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
答案: C · 早期下床活动和下肢运动
早期活动、下肢运动、充足的水分,以及经评估适合时使用弹力袜或抗凝药物,可以减少静脉淤滞和血栓形成的风险。
答案: D · 正平衡 600 mL
2400 − 1800 = +600 mL,为正平衡。出汗和呼吸等不显性失水没有被测量,因此实际平衡低于记录单所显示的数值。
答案: C · 根据感染控制建议,将他们安置在同一房间(集中隔离)
单人间不足时,感染同一种病原体(且无其他感染)的患者可以同住一室(集中隔离),并继续执行预防措施。感染控制人员会对此提供建议。
答案: C · Respiratory rate 24/min, new confusion, systolic BP 95 mmHg
qSOFA scores one point each for a respiratory rate of 22/min or more, altered mental status and a systolic BP of 100 mmHg or less. Two or more points mean higher risk, so the first patient needs urgent escalation.
答案: B · 感谢助理,确保任务被安全完成,并安排培训
被委派者应拒绝自己没有能力完成的任务。护士要确保现在安全地完成任务,并为将来安排培训。强迫完成任务或搁置不做都会让患者处于风险之中。
答案: B · Signs of bleeding and when to seek help
The main risk of anticoagulants is bleeding, so the patient must know the signs, such as black stools or blood in the urine, and when to seek help. Other topics can follow later.
答案: B · To detect diabetic retinopathy early, before sight is lost
Diabetic retinopathy often has no symptoms until it is advanced. Screening allows early treatment that can prevent blindness.
答案: D · 保持引流瓶低于胸部水平
引流瓶应低于胸部,防止液体和气体回流入胸膜腔。常规夹管可能导致张力性气胸。
答案: B · It falls, because GFR rises
In pregnancy, kidney blood flow and GFR rise by about 50%, so creatinine falls below non-pregnant values. A creatinine that looks "normal" for a non-pregnant adult may indicate reduced kidney function in pregnancy.
答案: D · Low potassium, high bicarbonate and high amylase
Repeated vomiting causes hypokalemia and metabolic alkalosis (high bicarbonate) from the loss of stomach acid. Enlarged salivary glands can raise salivary amylase. Hypokalemia can cause dangerous arrhythmias, so it is monitored and corrected.核对依据: Bulimia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: D · Within 72 hours after the birth
Anti-D is given within 72 hours of birth to an Rh-negative mother of an Rh-positive baby. It is also given after events such as miscarriage or abdominal trauma, and often routinely during pregnancy.
答案: A · 不可逆地抑制壁细胞的 H⁺/K⁺-ATP 酶
PPI 不可逆地阻断质子泵,即胃酸分泌的最后一步。H2 受体阻滞剂(如法莫替丁)作用较早、效力较弱;抗酸药只能中和。
答案: A · Class III
NYHA class I has no limitation, class II slight limitation with ordinary activity, class III marked limitation with less than ordinary activity but comfortable at rest, and class IV symptoms at rest. The class guides treatment and prognosis.
答案: D · "Tell me straight away if his SpO₂ is under 88% or he is more breathless."
Delegated tasks should come with specific parameters for reporting. Changing oxygen therapy, chest assessment and patient teaching need a registered nurse's knowledge and judgement. Clear reporting instructions keep the patient safe.
答案: B · At a low dose, increased slowly
Levothyroxine raises metabolic rate and myocardial oxygen demand. In older people and those with heart disease, a low starting dose that is increased gradually reduces the risk of angina and arrhythmias.
答案: C · Delayed cerebral ischaemia from vasospasm
Vasospasm of cerebral arteries typically occurs several days after a subarachnoid haemorrhage and causes new focal deficits or confusion. It needs urgent medical review. Normal fluid balance is maintained, and nimodipine is continued.
答案: D · New diarrhoea or abdominal pain
Checkpoint inhibitors can cause immune-mediated colitis, pneumonitis, hepatitis, skin reactions and endocrine problems. Early reporting allows grading and treatment, often with corticosteroids.
答案: B · A device-related pressure injury; protect skin and refit the mask
Masks, tubes, catheters and splints can cause pressure injuries. The nurse checks the skin under devices regularly, uses protective dressings, adjusts fit and repositions where possible.
答案: D · It can close the fetal ductus arteriosus too early
Indomethacin inhibits prostaglandin synthesis. In the fetus this can cause premature closure of the ductus arteriosus and reduced fetal urine output with oligohydramnios, risks that increase with gestational age.
答案: A · Transient tachypnoea of the newborn
Transient tachypnoea is common after caesarean birth without labour. Supportive care is usually enough, but infection must be considered if the baby becomes unwell or fails to improve.
答案: A · 0 至 10
FLACC 有五个类别,每个评 0、1 或 2 分,因此总分为 0–10,与数字自我报告量表相似。
答案: A · Liver damage develops over days, so urgent acetylcysteine may still be needed
Paracetamol overdose may cause few early symptoms, but the toxic metabolite damages the liver over the following days. A timed blood level guides treatment with acetylcysteine, which works best when started early. A mental health assessment is also needed.
答案: A · 避免一切酒精,包括某些漱口水和酱汁等隐蔽来源
双硫仑阻断乙醛的分解,因此饮酒会引起面部潮红、恶心、呕吐、心悸和低血压。患者必须避免任何形式的酒精。
答案: B · Fluid and nutritional intake, and other physical needs
In catatonic stupor, the patient may not eat, drink, move or pass urine normally. Dehydration, malnutrition, pressure injuries and blood clots are real risks, so physical care is the priority while medical treatment is started.
答案: x = 97 kg
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: V = 450 mL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 10 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
美国的标签现在标示 mg/mL(1 mg/mL = 1:1000;0.1 mg/mL = 1:10 000)。切勿静脉推注 1 mg/mL 的肾上腺素。
答案: R = 37.5 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 25 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: t = 21.4 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: V = 1.1 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 7.8 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 830 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 5 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 5 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 00:30 输完。
答案: MFS = 45
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 中度风险
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: HCO₃⁻ = 25.4 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 适当的代偿
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 窦性心动过缓
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 二度 II 型房室传导阻滞
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
II 型和三度阻滞可能突然进展,所以教科书将它们列为比 I 型更严重。
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