感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Which patient is at greatest risk of injury from a heat pack?
哪项表现提示正在发生 1 期压力性损伤?
一名护士被已知感染 HIV 的患者用过的针头刺伤。为什么必须立即上报?
A nurse teaches a patient about home oxygen safety. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
One hour after a vaginal birth, the nurse finds a soft, boggy uterus and heavy bleeding. What is the first action?
在肾内科病房,护士应首先看哪位患者?
一名车祸后的患者严重气短,一侧呼吸音消失,血压低,气管偏向对侧。可能的诊断是什么?
Which nursing measure helps reduce raised intracranial pressure?
Which technique is recommended for a capillary blood glucose test on an adult's finger?
A woman who is 34 weeks pregnant has high blood pressure, right upper abdominal pain, a platelet count of 70 × 10³/µL, raised ALT and AST, and a raised LDH. Which condition fits best?
Why is directly observed therapy (DOT) often used for tuberculosis?
为什么建议使用长效硝酸酯类药物的患者每天有几小时的无硝酸酯期?
Rheumatic heart disease most often follows which infection?
After six weeks of treatment for tuberculosis, a patient has nausea, dark urine and yellow eyes. What should the nurse do?
A patient's fistula starts to bleed at home after the needles were removed. What should they do first?
A patient with polycystic kidney disease suddenly has the worst headache of their life and neck stiffness. What should the nurse suspect?
关于轻症急性胰腺炎的喂养,下列哪项说法符合目前的指南?
A nurse teaches a patient going home between chemotherapy cycles. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A woman at 16 weeks has an amniocentesis. Which instruction after the procedure is correct?
A woman 2 hours after birth asks for help to the bathroom. She had an epidural that is now off. What is the main safety concern?
What should the nurse do before giving a dose of digoxin to an infant?
A formula-fed infant is diagnosed with cow's milk protein allergy. Which formula is usually advised?
A patient at risk of suicide is admitted. Which environmental check is most important?
一名自愿入院、没有即时伤害风险的患者想不顾医嘱离开病房。正确的一般处理方式是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名新生儿体重 4 lb 12 oz。按 1 lb = 16 oz 和 1 kg = 2.2 lb,求以千克表示的体重m。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 医嘱为 8 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 57 kg。请把剂量速率D用 mg/h 表示。取到两位小数。
一支肾上腺素预充式注射器标示为 1:10 000(0.1 mg/mL)。医嘱为心脏骤停时 1 mg 静脉注射(IV)。你应给多少体积 V?
你需要用 25%(w/v)储备液配制 500 mL 5%(w/v)溶液。 你需要多少容量的储备液 V₁?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 12 小时内输入 1000 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
医嘱要求在 12 小时内输入 1000 mL。3 小时后你发现袋中还剩 860 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 原来的泵速必须提高百分之多少 Δ?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 98 kg 的患者推注肝素 60 units/kg。药瓶规格为 5 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dopamine 400 mg,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 15 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 67 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 80 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 11:45 开始用输液泵以 60 mL/h 输注。到 16:45 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 20 次/分,SpO₂ 96%吸室内空气,血压 136/82 mmHg,脉搏 98 次/分,清醒,体温 37.1 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 25 次/分,SpO₂ 96%吸室内空气,血压 124/74 mmHg,脉搏 58 次/分,清醒,体温 36.4 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
练习数值:Na⁺ 143 mmol/L,葡萄糖 4.6 mmol/L,尿素 5.3 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
练习数值:Na⁺ 137,Cl⁻ 103,HCO₃⁻ 18 mmol/L,白蛋白 25 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
依次按五个步骤解读这条 II 导联心电图:心率、节律、P 波、PR 间期、QRS 时限。你在哪一步发现第一个异常?点击它。
答案: B · A patient with reduced sensation from diabetic neuropathy
Patients who cannot feel heat properly, such as those with neuropathy, spinal injury or reduced consciousness, can be burned without noticing. Their skin needs extra checks or heat should be avoided.
答案: A · 骨突部位皮肤完整,出现指压不褪色的红斑
1 期为皮肤完整、指压不褪色的红斑。2 期为部分皮层缺损,如水疱;3 期和 4 期更深。
答案: D · 暴露后预防用药在数小时内开始效果最好
用肥皂和水清洗伤口后,护士应立即上报,以便评估暴露情况。HIV 暴露后预防应尽快开始,最好在数小时内,最晚不超过 72 小时。
答案: C · “I can light candles at dinner if my oxygen is turned down low.”
Oxygen supports combustion, so open flames such as candles, matches, gas stoves and cigarettes must be kept away whatever the flow rate. The other statements are correct.
答案: B · Massage the fundus
Uterine atony is the most common cause of postpartum hemorrhage. Fundal massage helps the uterus contract; the nurse then calls for help and gives prescribed uterotonics if bleeding continues.
答案: A · 一名血液透析患者,错过了昨天的透析,现在肌无力并脉搏不规则
错过透析会使钾蓄积。肌无力和脉搏不规则提示高钾血症,可引起致命的心律失常,因此护士应立即评估,安排心电监护并上报。震颤和血管杂音以及清亮的流出液是预期的发现,饮食建议可以等待。
答案: C · 张力性气胸
张力性气胸危及生命,需要立即减压。气管偏移是晚期体征。
答案: D · Raising the head of the bed to about 30° with the head kept midline
Head elevation and a midline neck position help venous drainage from the brain. Neck flexion, tight tube ties, coughing, straining and unnecessary suctioning can all raise intracranial pressure.
答案: D · Prick the side of the fingertip
The sides of the fingertips are less sensitive than the pads, so they are used for capillary sampling. Rotating sites reduces soreness, and hard squeezing can add tissue fluid that gives inaccurate results.
答案: A · HELLP syndrome
HELLP stands for Hemolysis (raised LDH, falling hemoglobin), Elevated Liver enzymes and Low Platelets. It is a severe form of preeclampsia that can cause liver rupture and bleeding, and it usually requires delivery.核对依据: HELLP syndrome · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: A · Treatment lasts months, and missed doses cause resistance
Standard TB treatment usually lasts six months or more with several drugs. Poor adherence leads to relapse and multidrug-resistant TB, so supervised dosing improves completion.
答案: D · 防止对硝酸酯产生耐受
血药浓度恒定时,对硝酸酯的耐受很快产生。采用不对称给药方案或夜间揭去贴片可以保持其疗效。
答案: D · A group A streptococcal throat infection
Rheumatic fever is an autoimmune reaction weeks after group A streptococcal pharyngitis. It can permanently damage heart valves, most often the mitral valve. Prompt antibiotic treatment of strep throat prevents it.
答案: C · Withhold the next doses and report urgently for liver tests
Isoniazid, rifampicin and pyrazinamide can all cause hepatotoxicity. Jaundice, dark urine and nausea suggest drug-induced hepatitis, so the drugs are stopped and liver function is checked urgently. Orange urine from rifampicin does not cause yellow eyes. Alcohol increases the risk.
答案: D · Press firmly on the site with clean gauze
Firm, direct pressure with clean gauze or a dressing is applied to the site. A tourniquet could clot the fistula. If bleeding does not stop, the patient calls emergency services, because fistula bleeding can be heavy.
答案: A · A subarachnoid haemorrhage from a brain aneurysm
Adult polycystic kidney disease is associated with berry aneurysms. A sudden thunderclap headache suggests subarachnoid haemorrhage and needs emergency assessment and CT imaging.
答案: D · 一旦疼痛和恶心允许,可尽早恢复经口进食
与长时间禁食或肠外营养相比,早期经口或肠内喂养有助于维持肠屏障并减少感染。在轻症胰腺炎中,通常一旦耐受就恢复低脂饮食;不必等酶水平先恢复正常。
答案: B · "If I get a fever, I'll take paracetamol and see if it settles."
Fever or feeling unwell during the nadir may mean neutropenic sepsis, which needs urgent assessment and antibiotics within an hour. Patients must call the emergency line straight away, not wait at home.
答案: A · Report fever, leaking fluid or bleeding
After amniocentesis, she should report fever, leaking fluid, bleeding, severe cramps or reduced movements. Rh-negative women receive anti-D. Normal activity can usually resume soon.
答案: C · Leg weakness or numbness causing a fall
After an epidural, the nurse checks that leg sensation and strength have returned before she stands. Combined with orthostatic hypotension and blood loss, this makes the first walk a high fall risk.
答案: A · Count the apical pulse for a full minute and check it against the prescribed limits
Digoxin slows the heart rate and has a narrow therapeutic range. The apical pulse is counted for a full minute before each dose, and the dose is withheld and reported if the rate is below the limit set by the prescriber or local policy.
答案: C · An extensively hydrolysed formula
Extensively hydrolysed formulas contain milk proteins broken into small pieces that rarely trigger allergy; amino acid formulas are used for severe cases. Lactose-free formula still contains cow's milk protein, goat's milk proteins cross-react, and rice milk is unsuitable for infants.
答案: B · Remove items that could be used for self-harm, such as belts, cords and sharp objects
A safe environment removes potential ligatures and sharp objects and limits access to medicines. Patients at high risk are usually placed where staff can observe them easily.
答案: B · 解释风险,告知团队,记录谈话内容,并依照法律和政策尊重其离开的权利
自愿入院的患者通常可以离开,不过在评估其风险期间可能被要求等待。拘留某人需要法律授权。护士应告知团队、评估风险并记录。
答案: m = 2.16 kg
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 27.36 mg/h
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 10 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
美国的标签现在标示 mg/mL(1 mg/mL = 1:1000;0.1 mg/mL = 1:10 000)。切勿静脉推注 1 mg/mL 的肾上腺素。
答案: V₁ = 100 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: R = 21 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:21 滴/分。
答案: Δ = 14.67 %
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: V = 1.2 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 37.7 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 1.35 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 700 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: NEWS2 = 1
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
答案: Osm = 296 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: AGc = 19.75 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: 一度房室传导阻滞
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 节律
每条心电图的五个步骤:1. 心率(300 法或 1500 法;若不规则则用 6 秒法);2. 节律:R–R 间期是否相等;3. P 波:是否存在、在 II 导联直立、每个 QRS 之前各有一个且形态一致;4. PR 间期:0.12–0.20 s 且恒定;5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s。五个步骤做完之后才命名节律。正常窦性心律五项全部符合:60–100 次/分,规则,每个 QRS 之前有直立 P 波,PR 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 低于 0.12 s。
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