感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
外周静脉留置针沿线皮肤发红、疼痛和肿胀。恰当的处理是什么?
哪项表现提示正在发生 1 期压力性损伤?
病房暴发诺如病毒感染期间,工作人员在护理患者后应采用哪种手卫生方法?
A competent adult patient with pneumonia wants to leave the hospital against medical advice. What should the nurse do?
Which medication order should the nurse question?
An adult has burns over 40% of the body with no signs of airway injury. Which treatment is the priority during the first hours?
为什么对疑似脓毒症的患者要测定血清乳酸?
一名留置中心静脉导管的患者在坐位断开导管时,突然出现气短和低血压。最可能是哪种并发症?
During a red cell transfusion, when are serious acute reactions most likely, so the nurse stays with the patient?
哪项发现最有力地提示患者肌酐升高是由于急性肾损伤,而不是长期的慢性肾脏病?
What should the nurse teach a patient about taking levothyroxine?
During general anaesthesia with a volatile agent and suxamethonium (succinylcholine), a patient develops muscle rigidity, rising end-tidal CO2 and a fast-rising temperature. Which drug is the specific treatment?
The telemetry monitor suddenly shows a chaotic waveform resembling ventricular fibrillation, but the patient is talking and brushing their teeth. What should the nurse do first?
The monitor of a patient with a permanent pacemaker shows pacing spikes, but none of them is followed by a QRS complex. What does this mean?
长期服用苯妥英的患者应被告知哪种副作用?
Two days after a spinal cord injury, a patient has a swollen abdomen, no bowel sounds and is vomiting. What is most likely, and what is the nursing action?
Which finding suggests a deep tissue pressure injury?
A patient is splashed in the eye with an alkaline cleaning product. What is the first action?
哪项表现提示是产后抑郁而不是产后忧郁?
A woman with a previous caesarean is having a trial of labour. Which induction agent should the nurse question?
In a large ventricular septal defect, in which direction does blood mainly flow through the defect?
The parents of a 9-year-old who wets the bed most nights have been punishing him. What is the best advice?
一名因双相障碍服用拉莫三嗪的患者出现新的皮疹。护士应怎么做?
The parent of a 16-year-old taking a stimulant for ADHD says her son's friends keep asking him for his tablets. What should the nurse teach?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次滴速计算得到 209.345 gtt/min。 本练习的规则是:滴速取整到最接近的整滴。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 22:25 开始,到次日早晨 08:40 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少小时t?答案以小数表示小时数,取到两位小数。
一支肾上腺素安瓿标示为 1:1000(1 mg/mL)。医嘱为 0.3 mg 肌内注射(IM),用于严重过敏反应。你应抽取多少体积 V?
一名体重 8 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 5 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 200 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求以 120 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
25 mg 药物溶于 250 mL 的输液以 30 mL/h 运行。患者每分钟接受多少微克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 25 000 单位,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 18 units/kg/h,患者体重 73 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dopamine 800 mg、容量 500 mL 的输液以 16 mL/h 输注。患者体重 69 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 14:00 开始用输液泵以 75 mL/h 输注。到 18:00 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 非常受限; 潮湿程度: 非常潮湿; 活动: 偶尔步行; 活动能力: 非常受限; 营养: 充足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 无明显问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 14 次/分,SpO₂ 97%吸室内空气,血压 222/134 mmHg,脉搏 58 次/分,新出现意识模糊,体温 39.2 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.63,PaCO₂ 41 mmHg (5.5 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 42 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
练习数值:Na⁺ 142,Cl⁻ 106,HCO₃⁻ 22 mmol/L,白蛋白 38 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
一位摸不到脉搏的患者,监护仪上显示这种有组织的心律(无脉性电活动)。成人复苏指南为它推荐哪种治疗?点击你的答案。
答案: B · 拔除留置针并记录,如仍需要则另选部位重新置管
静脉炎是静脉的炎症。应拔除留置针,记录并观察该部位,只有在仍需要时才在别处重新置管。
答案: A · 骨突部位皮肤完整,出现指压不褪色的红斑
1 期为皮肤完整、指压不褪色的红斑。2 期为部分皮层缺损,如水疱;3 期和 4 期更深。
答案: A · 用肥皂和水洗手
酒精手消毒剂不能可靠地杀灭诺如病毒,所以应使用肥皂和水洗手,通过机械作用将其清除。同时还应采取接触传播预防和彻底的环境清洁。
答案: D · Explain the risks, notify the provider and follow the policy for leaving against advice
Holding a competent adult against their will can be false imprisonment. The nurse explains the risks, informs the provider, asks the patient to sign the against-advice form if they agree and documents the discussion.
答案: D · Potassium chloride by IV push
Potassium chloride must never be given by IV push, because a rapid dose can cause cardiac arrest. It is diluted and given slowly through an infusion pump.
答案: D · Large-volume IV fluids with close monitoring of urine output
Once the airway is secure, the early priority in major burns is fluid resuscitation to prevent burn shock. Urine output is a key guide to whether enough fluid is being given.
答案: A · 乳酸升高表明组织灌注不良、风险更高
组织灌注不良时乳酸会升高。脓毒症中乳酸高提示病情更重,并用于指导液体复苏。
答案: A · 空气栓塞
中心静脉导管与空气相通时可能发生空气栓塞。应夹闭导管,如有可能让患者左侧卧并取头低位,给予高流量吸氧并呼救。
答案: B · In the first 15 minutes
Acute hemolytic and anaphylactic reactions usually appear early, so the transfusion is started slowly and the nurse stays with the patient for about the first 15 minutes, checking vital signs before, during and after according to policy.
答案: A · 三天前肌酐正常,此后翻了一倍
数日内从正常基线迅速升高是急性肾损伤的特征。长期数值偏高、肾脏缩小和慢性贫血提示慢性肾脏病。核对依据: Acute Kidney Injury · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2026)
答案: C · Take it on an empty stomach, 30–60 minutes before breakfast
Levothyroxine is best absorbed on an empty stomach, and calcium, iron and antacids should be taken some hours apart. It is taken every day, usually for life.
答案: C · Dantrolene
Malignant hyperthermia is caused by uncontrolled calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Dantrolene blocks this release, and the triggering agents are stopped at once.
答案: B · Check the patient and the electrodes, as this is likely artefact
Movement, loose electrodes and muscle activity can create artefact that looks like VF. A conscious, talking patient cannot be in VF. The nurse assesses the patient and checks the leads and electrodes, then reattaches them if needed.
答案: C · Failure to capture
Failure to capture means the pacing stimulus does not depolarise the myocardium, so no QRS follows the spike. Causes include lead displacement, a raised threshold or battery problems. It can cause bradycardia or asystole, so the patient is assessed and the team informed urgently.
答案: B · 牙龈增生,因此良好的口腔卫生很重要
苯妥英常引起牙龈增生,还可引起多毛、面部特征粗糙,高浓度时出现共济失调、眼球震颤和嗜睡。良好的牙齿护理可减少牙龈问题。该药治疗窗窄,因此要监测血药浓度。
答案: D · Paralytic ileus, so keep nil by mouth and prepare for an NG tube
Paralytic ileus is common in the first days after a spinal cord injury. The patient is kept nil by mouth, and a nasogastric tube decompresses the stomach to prevent vomiting and aspiration until bowel sounds return.
答案: B · Intact skin that is purple or maroon over a bony area
A deep tissue injury appears as persistent purple, maroon or dark discolouration, or a blood-filled blister, from pressure and shear on underlying tissue. It may quickly turn into a deep wound.
答案: C · Irrigate the eye at once with large volumes of water or saline
Alkali burns can cause severe, deep eye damage. Immediate, prolonged irrigation, checking the pH, and urgent ophthalmology review are needed. Neutralising agents are not used.
答案: C · 情绪低落和兴趣丧失持续超过 2 周并影响日常生活
产后抑郁持续超过 2 周,并妨碍照顾自己或婴儿。需要进行筛查(如使用爱丁堡产后抑郁量表)并转诊。
答案: D · Misoprostol
Misoprostol is avoided in women with a uterine scar because of a high risk of uterine rupture. Mechanical methods, amniotomy and carefully monitored oxytocin may be used.
答案: D · From left to right, increasing blood flow to the lungs
Left ventricular pressure is higher, so blood flows from left to right, overloading the lungs and right heart. This causes increased pulmonary blood flow and can lead to heart failure in infancy.
答案: A · Stop punishing him, praise dry nights and consider a bedwetting alarm
Nocturnal enuresis is common and not deliberate; punishment worsens it. Support, reward systems for agreed behaviours, enuresis alarms and sometimes desmopressin are effective, along with normal daytime drinking and regular toileting.
答案: C · 及时上报,因为这可能是严重皮肤反应的开始
拉莫三嗪可引起 Stevens–Johnson 综合征,尤其是在治疗早期或剂量增加过快时。任何皮疹都需要及时的医疗评估。
答案: D · Store it securely and never share it, because stimulants are controlled drugs
Stimulants can be diverted and misused for studying or recreation. They are controlled drugs, so secure storage, monitoring the number of tablets and not sharing them are important.
答案: x = 209 gtt/min
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: t = 10.25 h
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 0.3 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
美国的标签现在标示 mg/mL(1 mg/mL = 1:1000;0.1 mg/mL = 1:10 000)。切勿静脉推注 1 mg/mL 的肾上腺素。
答案: V = 1 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 40 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: D = 50 mcg/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 26.3 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 6.2 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 1000 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 700 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 15
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 高
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
答案: 未代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
临床上还应检查预期代偿:代谢性碱中毒时 PaCO₂ ≈ 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 = 48.4–52.4 mmHg,所以实测 41 mmHg 提示合并呼吸性碱中毒(混合性紊乱)。上面的答案是按 ROME 法的考试分类。
答案: AGc = 14.5 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: 一度房室传导阻滞
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 心肺复苏(不可电击心律)
无脉性电活动(PEA):PEA 无法从心电图条带上看出。监护仪显示有组织的电活动(VF、VT 或心搏停止以外的心律),但患者摸不到脉搏,因此要通过检查患者来识别。在成人复苏指南中,PEA 和心搏停止是不可电击的心脏骤停心律:进行高质量心肺复苏,尽快使用肾上腺素,并寻找可逆原因(5H 和 5T,如低血容量、缺氧、张力性气胸和心脏压塞)。VF 和无脉性 VT 是可电击心律。
PEA 在床旁识别,绝不能仅凭心电图条带。这是考试练习,不是临床指南。
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