感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient with right-sided weakness is moving from bed to chair. Where should the chair be placed?
According to current European (ERC) and 2025 American Heart Association guidelines, what is the first action for a conscious adult who is choking and cannot cough effectively?
A patient with a severe latex allergy is booked for surgery. Which measure is commonly used?
A patient’s allergy band says “penicillin”, and an order has been written for amoxicillin. What should the nurse do?
A nurse teaches a patient about sublingual nitroglycerin tablets. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A patient has central chest pain that started 30 minutes ago at rest and has not eased with rest or nitroglycerin. What does this suggest?
Which mask is required for staff during an aerosol-generating procedure on a patient with a respiratory infection spread by aerosols?
During a general anaesthetic, a patient develops a rapidly rising temperature, muscle rigidity and rising carbon dioxide levels. What should be suspected?
A patient on warfarin has an INR of 7.8 and a nosebleed. Which medication would the nurse expect the provider to prescribe?
In the first 24 hours after a major burn, which laboratory pattern is most expected?
A patient refuses a prescribed oral medicine. What should the nurse do?
Why is vancomycin given by mouth, not intravenously, for Clostridioides difficile infection?
A patient's ankle–brachial pressure index (ABPI) is 0.6. What does this suggest?
一名 82 岁的社区获得性肺炎患者新近出现意识混乱,呼吸频率 32 次/分,血压 88/52 mmHg,尿素 9 mmol/L。这提示什么?
Several hours after a carotid endarterectomy, which finding needs the most urgent action?
A patient with stable epilepsy on phenytoin started a new medicine last week. They now have nystagmus, an unsteady gait and slurred speech. What should the nurse do?
What is the most important safety point about misoprostol?
哪条安全规则适用于长春新碱?
A woman at 24 weeks says she craves eating ice and clay. What should the nurse assess for?
Which newborn finding should prompt checks for kidney and other anomalies?
Why is hearing screening done in the newborn period?
A 4-year-old chokes on a sweet but is coughing forcefully and can speak. What should the nurse do?
A woman calls the emergency department after a sexual assault an hour ago. What advice helps to preserve forensic evidence?
一名自愿入院、没有即时伤害风险的患者想不顾医嘱离开病房。正确的一般处理方式是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 2:55 AM。哪个条目是 24 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注的给药速率为 25 mcg/min。请把这个剂量速率D用 mg/h 表示。
某患者体重 15 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 25 mg/kg,分 3 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
处方剂量为 465 微克。安瓿浓度为 0.5 mg/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 60 滴/mL 的输液器在 12 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋中含有 4 g 药物,溶于 500 mL。医嘱为每分钟 1.5 mg。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 12 500 单位,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 18 units/kg/h,患者体重 81 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dopamine 400 mg,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 8 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 55 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 77 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 60 mL/h 输注。到 10:30 时已输入 150 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 完全受限; 潮湿程度: 很少潮湿; 活动: 偶尔步行; 活动能力: 完全不能活动; 营养: 可能不足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 有问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 116 kg,身高 172 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.44,PaCO₂ 29 mmHg (3.9 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 19 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 45 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这位患者装有起搏器。请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。点击你的答案。
答案: D · On the patient's left side, close to the bed
Placing the chair on the strong side lets the patient pivot and bear weight on the stronger leg, making the transfer safer.
答案: B · Give up to 5 back blows
For severe airway obstruction in a conscious adult, give up to 5 back blows, then up to 5 abdominal thrusts if needed, and repeat. Older US teaching started with abdominal thrusts alone. If they become unresponsive, start CPR.
答案: B · Use latex-free supplies and schedule the patient as the first case of the day
Latex proteins can become airborne on glove powder and settle in the room. Using a latex-safe room and supplies and scheduling the patient first, when airborne latex is lowest, reduce the risk.
答案: D · Hold the drug and contact the prescriber
Amoxicillin is a penicillin, so it could cause a serious allergic reaction. The nurse holds the drug, clarifies the allergy and contacts the prescriber for a safe alternative.
答案: A · “I will swallow the tablet with a glass of water.”
Sublingual tablets dissolve under the tongue and are absorbed quickly there. Sitting down reduces falls from low blood pressure, the tablets are protected from light and moisture, and headache is a common side effect.
答案: B · A possible myocardial infarction that needs urgent action
Chest pain that lasts and is not relieved by rest or nitroglycerin suggests acute coronary syndrome, possibly a heart attack. The nurse acts at once: ECG, escalation and prescribed treatment.
答案: C · A fit-tested respirator mask (such as FFP3 or N95)
Aerosol-generating procedures, such as intubation, release small infectious particles. Respirators that are fit-tested protect the wearer, while surgical masks mainly protect against droplets.
答案: D · Malignant hyperthermia
Malignant hyperthermia is a hypermetabolic reaction triggered by volatile anaesthetics or suxamethonium (succinylcholine) in susceptible people. It is treated urgently with dantrolene, cooling and stopping the trigger.
答案: C · Vitamin K (phytonadione)
Warfarin blocks vitamin K–dependent clotting factors, and vitamin K restores their production over hours. For serious bleeding, a prothrombin complex concentrate may also be given to replace factors at once. The warfarin is held.核对依据: Label: WARFARIN SODIUM tablet · DailyMed (NLM/FDA) (2012)
答案: A · High potassium and high hematocrit
Early after a burn, damaged cells release potassium, and plasma shifts into the tissues, which concentrates the blood and raises the hematocrit. Later, as fluid returns and the kidneys excrete potassium, hypokalemia can develop.核对依据: High potassium level · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: B · Explore the reason, respect the decision, document and inform the prescriber
Competent patients may refuse treatment. The nurse explores concerns, explains the purpose and risks, documents the refusal and informs the prescriber; covert administration needs formal legal and clinical procedures.
答案: A · Oral vancomycin is not absorbed, so it reaches high levels in the colon
Oral vancomycin stays in the gut and acts directly on C. difficile in the colon. IV vancomycin is not excreted into the gut in useful amounts, so it does not treat this infection.
答案: D · Significant peripheral arterial disease
An ABPI of roughly 1.0–1.3 is normal, and below 0.9 indicates peripheral arterial disease; lower values mean more severe disease. A value above about 1.3 suggests calcified, incompressible vessels, common in diabetes, and is unreliable.
答案: D · CURB-65 评分为 5:高风险,需要紧急高级医师评估
该患者得分为 5 分(满分 5 分):意识混乱、尿素 >7 mmol/L、呼吸频率 ≥30 次/分、低血压和年龄 ≥65 岁。这提示重症肺炎,死亡率高,患者同时符合可能脓毒症的标准。需要迅速上报、静脉抗生素、补液,并评估是否需要重症监护。
答案: B · An expanding neck swelling with noisy breathing
A neck haematoma after carotid surgery can compress the airway quickly. It needs immediate senior help and may need the wound opened. Neurological checks for new stroke and cranial nerve damage are also part of routine care.
答案: C · Suspect phenytoin toxicity, hold the next dose and ask for a drug level
Nystagmus, ataxia and slurred speech are classic signs of phenytoin toxicity. Interacting drugs can raise its level. The nurse holds the dose, ensures safety and escalates for a level and a review. A new neurological deficit still needs medical assessment.
答案: D · It can cause miscarriage and must not be used in pregnancy
Misoprostol protects the stomach lining against NSAID damage, but it stimulates uterine contraction and can cause miscarriage. Diarrhoea is its most common side effect.
答案: D · 绝不能鞘内给药;以小袋装供静脉专用
鞘内注射长春新碱几乎总是致命的。为防止给药途径错误,它被稀释在小袋中供静脉使用,标注“仅供静脉使用,其他途径给药可致命”,并与鞘内药物分开存放。
答案: D · Iron deficiency anaemia
Pica, the craving for non-food substances, is associated with iron deficiency. Eating clay or soil can also expose the mother to toxins and parasites. Haemoglobin and ferritin should be checked.
答案: A · A single umbilical artery
A two-vessel cord can be associated with renal, cardiac and other anomalies. Milia, moulding and acrocyanosis are normal findings.
答案: B · Early detection allows support that protects language development
Permanent hearing loss is often not obvious in babies. Screening allows diagnosis and support, such as hearing aids, within the first months, which greatly improves speech and language outcomes.
答案: D · Encourage her to keep coughing and stay with her, watching closely
A child who can cough effectively and speak has a partly open airway. Back blows or thrusts are not started, and blind finger sweeps can push the object further in. If the cough becomes ineffective, back blows and abdominal thrusts are given.
答案: A · Avoid showering or changing clothes, and bring any clothing already removed in a paper bag
Not washing, changing or eating where possible helps keep evidence. Paper bags are used because plastic traps moisture and can degrade biological evidence. Her medical needs and choices remain the priority.
答案: C · 解释风险,告知团队,记录谈话内容,并依照法律和政策尊重其离开的权利
自愿入院的患者通常可以离开,不过在评估其风险期间可能被要求等待。拘留某人需要法律授权。护士应告知团队、评估风险并记录。
答案: 02:55
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: D = 1.5 mg/h
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: D = 125 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 0.93 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: R = 42 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:42 滴/分。
答案: R = 11.25 mL/h
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 29.2 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 16.5 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 0.78 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 5.8 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 5 h 50 min,所以袋子大约在 16:20 输完。
答案: B = 12
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 肥胖 II 级
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: PaCO₂ = 52.5 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: 窦性心律伴窦性停搏
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。 窄 QRS 心动过速与停顿:室上性心动过速(SVT)是规则的心动过速,约 150–250 次/分钟,QRS 波群较窄;P 波通常看不到,因为它们隐藏在 QRS 波群或 T 波中。成人静息时的窦性心动过速通常低于约 150 次/分钟,且每个 QRS 前都有可见的 P 波;伴 2:1 传导的心房扑动常在约 150 次/分钟,并显示锯齿波。窦性停搏是指窦房结暂时停止发放冲动:出现既无 P 波也无 QRS 的停顿,其长度不是 P–P 周期的整数倍(恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞)。
答案: 起搏心律,夺获失败
起搏心律:起搏器脉冲表现为一条细而垂直的起搏钉样信号。心室钉样信号之后的 QRS 是增宽的(0.12 s 或以上),因为冲动是从导线经心肌传播,而不是经传导系统;右心室起搏时,在 II 导联上通常以负向为主。P 波之前的钉样信号表示心房起搏;双腔(房室)起搏器则表现为心房钉样信号加 P 波,再经过程控的房室延迟,出现心室钉样信号和增宽的 QRS。夺获是指每个钉样信号之后都跟着一次除极。夺获失败是指钉样信号之后没有 P 波或 QRS;感知不良(钉样信号无视患者自己的心搏)和起搏不良(该出现钉样信号时没有)是另外两种典型的故障。
夺获失败:起搏器发放了脉冲,但心脏没有反应。教科书把它视为需要紧急报告的情况,因为患者可能依赖起搏器。
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