感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
When should discharge planning begin?
有决策能力的患者拒绝医嘱治疗。护士应该怎么做?
A nurse who wears prescription glasses must irrigate a wound where splashing is likely. Which eye protection is suitable?
A woman in late pregnancy is choking and cannot speak or cough. Which technique should the rescuer use?
On a postpartum unit, which patient is the most appropriate to assign to an LPN/LVN?
A patient admitted with suspected appendicitis says the pain suddenly got better, but now the abdomen is rigid and the heart rate is rising. What does this suggest?
一名老年患者在病房中跌倒风险很高。哪项护理措施最恰当?
A patient with severe sepsis starts bleeding from cannula sites and the gums, with a low platelet count and prolonged clotting times. What is most likely?
A patient has had severe watery diarrhea for 4 days. Which laboratory pattern would the nurse expect?
一名慢性肾脏病患者磷酸盐为 7.2 mg/dL(2.3 mmol/L)。哪项饮食指导最恰当?
Why should loperamide usually be avoided in bloody diarrhoea with fever?
A patient on heparin for 7 days has a platelet count that has fallen by more than half, and a new leg vein thrombosis. What is the most likely cause and the key action?
Why is active tuberculosis treated with several drugs for at least six months?
Shortly after a thoracentesis, a patient becomes breathless with sharp chest pain and reduced breath sounds on the same side. What complication is most likely?
Which lifestyle advice best helps a patient with epilepsy reduce their seizures?
A patient with multiple sclerosis has had worse leg weakness for one day, together with a fever and burning on passing urine. What is the most likely explanation?
Which statement about giving medicines through a feeding tube is correct?
An hour after a line flush, a patient receiving parenteral nutrition has rigors and a temperature of 39.1 °C. What should the nurse suspect and do?
A woman at 20 weeks says her gums bleed when she brushes her teeth. What is the best advice?
A newborn is pale, has a heart rate of 170/min and weak pulses after a difficult vacuum birth. The scalp is boggy and swelling across the sutures is increasing. What should the nurse suspect?
一名儿童在咽痛两周后出现可乐色尿、眼睑浮肿和高血压。可能的诊断是什么?
A child with leukaemia and a very high white cell count starts chemotherapy. Which blood results suggest tumour lysis syndrome?
Which treatment is recommended first-line for chronic insomnia in adults?
The family of a patient with schizophrenia asks how they can tell if he is becoming unwell again. Which signs should the nurse teach them to watch for?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 104.2 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 血清肌酐结果为 2.6 mg/dL。按肌酐 1 mg/dL = 88.4 µmol/L,求以 µmol/L 表示的c,取到最接近的整数。
一名体重 7 kg 的儿童按 4 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 10 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一名体重 10 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 5 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 100 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 20 滴/mL 的输液器在 12 小时内输入 1000 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一组输液以 42 滴/分的速度经 60 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 200 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 63 kg 的患者推注肝素 60 units/kg。药瓶规格为 1 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dopamine 800 mg,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 5 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 56 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 65 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 06:00 开始以 80 mL/h 输注。3 小时后速率改为 75 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位头部损伤后的练习患者完全不睁眼,只发出无法理解的声音,如呻吟,最佳运动反应表现为:手臂和腿伸直(异常伸展)。 算出 GCS 并据此对头部损伤分级。点击你的答案。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 107 kg,身高 176 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
某练习血气显示 PaCO₂ 56 mmHg (7.5 kPa)。利用规则:在急性呼吸性酸中毒中,PaCO₂ 每比 40 高出 10 mmHg,HCO₃⁻ 升高 1 mmol/L,以HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L 为起点,求预期HCO₃⁻。
在海平面,某练习血气取自吸入 21% 氧气时,显示 PaO₂ 80 mmHg (10.7 kPa),PaCO₂ 45 mmHg (6.0 kPa)。用 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 求A–a 梯度。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
答案: D · On admission, or as early as possible
Starting discharge planning early allows time for teaching, equipment, referrals and support at home, reducing delays and readmissions.
答案: C · 尊重拒绝,确保其理解后果,告知团队并记录
有决策能力的成人可以拒绝治疗。护士应了解原因、提供信息、告知开具医嘱者并记录。未经正当法律程序的隐蔽给药是不可接受的。
答案: B · Goggles or a face shield worn over the glasses
Prescription glasses do not protect against splashes from the sides, top or bottom. Goggles or a face shield that fit over them are worn when splashes are likely.
答案: C · Chest thrusts
For people in late pregnancy or who are very obese, chest thrusts replace abdominal thrusts because the rescuer cannot get around the abdomen effectively. Blind finger sweeps can push the object deeper.
答案: A · Day 1 after an uncomplicated vaginal birth, stable vital signs
A stable patient after an uncomplicated birth fits the LPN/LVN role. Heavy bleeding, magnesium infusions and new admissions with fever need RN assessment.
答案: B · The appendix may have ruptured, causing peritonitis
A sudden ease in pain followed by a rigid abdomen and a rising pulse can mean rupture and peritonitis. This is a surgical emergency, so the nurse reports at once.
答案: D · 把呼叫铃和个人物品放在伸手可及处,并复核引起嗜睡的药物
预防跌倒包括评估危险因素、复核镇静类药物、提供眼镜、合适的鞋和助行器、把必需品放在伸手可及处以及协助如厕。
答案: D · Disseminated intravascular coagulation
In DIC, widespread activation of clotting consumes platelets and clotting factors, causing both small clots and bleeding. Treating the underlying cause and replacing blood products as needed are key.
答案: D · Low potassium and low bicarbonate
Lower gut fluid contains potassium and bicarbonate, so severe diarrhea causes hypokalemia and a normal anion gap (hyperchloremic) metabolic acidosis, plus dehydration. Vomiting, in contrast, causes metabolic alkalosis.核对依据: Potassium Blood Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024); Metabolic acidosis · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: B · 限制富含磷酸盐的食物,如加工食品和可乐
CKD 中的高磷通过限制磷摄入、随餐服用结合剂和透析来处理。含有磷酸盐添加剂的加工食品、可乐和大量乳制品是主要来源。核对依据: Phosphorus: Tips for People with Chronic Kidney Disease · Indian Health Service (HHS); Phosphorus and Your Kidneys · National Kidney Foundation (2024); Chronic kidney disease · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: A · Slowing the gut may keep bacteria and toxins in the bowel longer
In dysentery or suspected C. difficile infection, antimotility drugs may prolong illness and increase complications such as toxic megacolon. The cause is assessed and fluids are replaced first.
答案: B · Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia; stop all heparin
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is caused by antibodies against heparin–platelet factor 4 complexes. It usually starts 5–10 days after heparin begins and causes thrombosis, so all heparin is stopped and a non-heparin anticoagulant is used.
答案: C · To kill slow-growing bacteria and prevent drug resistance
Mycobacterium tuberculosis grows slowly and has resistant mutants in any large population. A combination (for example rifampicin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide and ethambutol at first) kills susceptible and resistant bacteria and prevents resistance. Stopping early risks relapse and multidrug-resistant TB.
答案: A · Pneumothorax
Pneumothorax is a common complication of thoracentesis, caused by the needle puncturing the lung or air entering the chest. The nurse assesses the patient, gives oxygen and informs the team, who will arrange a chest X-ray. An effusion re-accumulates over days, and infection appears later.
答案: A · Keep regular sleep and take every dose on time
Missed doses and lack of sleep are among the most common seizure triggers. Excess alcohol and, in some people, flashing lights are others. Most people can exercise safely, with sensible precautions such as not swimming alone.
答案: C · A pseudo-relapse caused by infection
Infection and fever can temporarily worsen existing MS symptoms without new damage (a pseudo-relapse). The infection, here probably a UTI, is treated first. Steroids for a true relapse are considered only if the infection is excluded.
答案: C · Modified-release tablets should not be crushed
Crushing modified-release or enteric-coated tablets can cause toxicity or loss of effect. Liquid forms are preferred; each medicine is given separately with flushes, and a pharmacist advises.
答案: A · Line infection; escalate and take blood cultures
Fever and rigors after flushing a central line suggest a catheter-related bloodstream infection. The nurse escalates urgently, takes cultures from the line and peripherally per policy, and starts sepsis care.
答案: B · Use a soft brush and keep up routine dental care
Gum swelling and bleeding are common because of oestrogen-related vascular changes. Good oral hygiene and routine dental care are safe and recommended in pregnancy.
答案: B · Subgaleal haemorrhage
A subgaleal haemorrhage is bleeding under the scalp aponeurosis. It crosses suture lines, can grow rapidly and can cause hypovolaemic shock. It is an emergency, unlike caput or cephalhaematoma.
答案: A · 急性链球菌感染后肾小球肾炎
链球菌感染后肾小球肾炎出现在咽部感染后约 1–3 周(皮肤感染后则更晚),引起血尿、水肿和高血压。需监测血压、液体平衡和体重。
答案: A · High potassium, high phosphate, high uric acid and low calcium
Rapid breakdown of tumour cells releases potassium, phosphate and nucleic acids (forming uric acid); phosphate binds calcium, lowering it. This can cause arrhythmias and kidney failure, so hydration, allopurinol or rasburicase and close monitoring are used.
答案: C · Cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia (CBT-I)
CBT-I combines sleep education, stimulus control, sleep restriction and work on unhelpful beliefs about sleep. It has lasting effects and fewer risks than long-term sleeping tablets.
答案: B · Poor sleep, withdrawal from others and increasing suspiciousness
Early warning signs of relapse include sleep disturbance, social withdrawal, irritability, suspiciousness and neglect of self-care. Recognising them early allows treatment to be reviewed before a full relapse.
答案: T = 40.1 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: c = 230 µmol/L
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 2.8 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 2.5 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 28 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:28 滴/分。
答案: t = 4.8 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: V = 3.8 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 10.5 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 0.99 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 6.5 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 6 h 28 min,所以袋子大约在 12:28 输完。
答案: 重度
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 肥胖 I 级
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: HCO₃⁻ = 25.6 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: A–a 梯度 = 13.48 mmHg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 心房扑动,4:1 传导
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 室性心动过速
室性节律:室性心动过速是连续三个或以上宽大(0.12 s 或以上)的波群,频率超过 100 次/分,通常为 150–250 次/分,节律规则,没有相关的 P 波。心室颤动是紊乱、不规则的波形,无法辨认 P 波、QRS 波群或 T 波,也没有可计数的频率。心脏停搏是几乎平直的线,没有心室活动;平直线一定要通过检查患者、导联和增益并换一个导联来确认。在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律,心脏停搏则不是。
在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律。这里只是识别练习。
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