感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Why should a patient wash and dry their hands before a fingerprick glucose test?
一名成年患者缺乏就某项治疗作出决定的能力,且没有预先决定。应如何作出决定(英格兰和威尔士)?
A family member tells the nurse, “My father is not himself. Something is wrong.” The hospital has a family-activated rapid response system. What is correct?
Which position is especially dangerous for a patient in physical restraints?
A woman calls to say her husband suddenly has a drooping face and slurred speech. What should the nurse advise?
A nurse teaches a patient to inject enoxaparin at home. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
慢性肾病患者的饮食通常需要限制什么?
A hypotensive postoperative patient is given a fluid bolus. Which findings suggest a good response?
Which blood collection practice helps prevent hemolysis of the sample?
A patient has eaten very little for 2 weeks and has received broad-spectrum antibiotics. The INR is now 2.3 without warfarin, and the platelets are normal. What is the most likely cause?
Digoxin 0.25 mg is ordered. The tablets available are 0.125 mg. How many tablets should be given?
A breastfeeding mother needs a mild analgesic. Which drug is generally considered compatible with breastfeeding?
Why is intravenous furosemide given slowly rather than as a rapid push of a large dose?
A ventilated patient is coughing, and the high-pressure alarm sounds. Coarse sounds are heard over the trachea. What should the nurse do first?
A patient has just started levetiracetam. Which side effect should the nurse teach them to report?
A nurse teaches foot care to a patient with diabetic neuropathy. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
Which liver function test pattern suggests bile duct obstruction?
通过外周套管针静脉输注长春新碱时,患者报告灼痛,输注部位肿胀。护士首先应做什么?
A woman at 24 weeks says she craves eating ice and clay. What should the nurse assess for?
产后第 4 天,一位母亲说她听到有声音告诉她她的孩子是邪恶的。首要措施是什么?
用 FLACC 量表为一名儿童评分。总分的范围是多少?
A 25 kg child needs maintenance IV fluids. Using the 100–50–20 rule, what is the hourly rate?
How does memantine work in Alzheimer's disease?
A patient with long-standing schizophrenia is often seen drinking from the taps. Today he is confused, has a headache and his serum sodium is 124 mmol/L (124 mEq/L). What is the most likely problem?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 104.4 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次维持输液以 80 mL/h 的速度不间断运行。24 小时内输注多少升V?
一名体重 35 kg 的儿童按 4 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 20 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
处方剂量为 3.48 mg。安瓿每 mL 含 4000 微克。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求以 50 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
将 500 mg 药物稀释于 250 mL 中,通过滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。医嘱为每小时 60 mg。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 83 kg 的患者推注肝素 70 units/kg。药瓶规格为 1 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 66 kg 的患者的医嘱为norepinephrine 10 mcg/min。输液袋中含 4 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 11:30 开始用输液泵以 125 mL/h 输注。到 16:30 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 拐杖、手杖或助行器; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 受损; 精神状态: 高估或忘记自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 7 次/分,SpO₂ 98%吸室内空气,血压 130/78 mmHg,脉搏 44 次/分,清醒,体温 37.0 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习血气显示 PaCO₂ 79 mmHg (10.5 kPa)。利用规则:在慢性呼吸性酸中毒中,PaCO₂ 每比 40 高出 10 mmHg,HCO₃⁻ 升高 3.5 mmol/L,以HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L 为起点,求预期HCO₃⁻。
练习数值:Na⁺ 141,Cl⁻ 113,HCO₃⁻ 15 mmol/L,白蛋白 30 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Fridericia 公式 QTc = QT/∛RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
这位患者装有起搏器。请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。点击你的答案。
答案: A · Sugar on the skin can give a falsely high reading
Traces of food or drink on the finger can raise the reading. Washing with water and drying fully gives an accurate result; alcohol wipes can also affect some meters.
答案: A · 以患者的最佳利益为准,考虑其以往的意愿,并征询其身边亲近的人
为缺乏能力者作出的决定必须以其最佳利益为准,考虑其过去和现在的意愿、价值观和信仰,并征询照护者和家属的意见。应选择限制最少的方案。
答案: C · The family can call the rapid response team if they are worried and staff have not responded
Family-activated rapid response systems allow patients and families to call for help directly when they notice a worrying change. The nurse should also take the concern seriously and assess the patient.
答案: C · Lying face down (prone)
Restraining a person face down can restrict breathing and has caused deaths from positional asphyxia. Restrained patients are positioned to protect the airway and are watched closely.
答案: C · Call emergency services now and note the time it started
Stroke is time-critical. Emergency services can begin assessment on the way and take the patient to a stroke center; the time of onset guides treatment.
答案: C · “I will rub the area after the injection to help it absorb.”
Rubbing the site after a low-molecular-weight heparin injection increases bruising. The abdomen away from the navel, rotating sites and reporting bleeding are correct.
答案: D · 钾和磷
受损的肾脏难以排出钾和磷,因此常需要饮食限制,同时限制盐,有时还要限制液体和蛋白质。
答案: C · The heart rate falls, blood pressure rises and urine output improves
After a fluid challenge, a falling heart rate, rising blood pressure, better capillary refill, improving consciousness and urine output suggest fluid responsiveness. New crackles or breathlessness suggest fluid overload.
答案: B · Gently inverting the tubes instead of shaking them
Hemolysis falsely raises potassium and affects other results. It is reduced by gentle inversion of tubes, avoiding very small needles, avoiding strong suction or forcing blood through a needle, and keeping tourniquet time short.
答案: A · Vitamin K deficiency
Vitamin K comes from the diet and from gut bacteria. Poor intake plus antibiotics can cause vitamin K deficiency, which lowers factors II, VII, IX and X and prolongs the PT/INR. Vitamin K replacement corrects it.核对依据: Vitamin K Deficiency in Neonates and Adults (StatPearls) · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2026); Prothrombin time (PT) · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: D · 2 tablets
0.25 mg ÷ 0.125 mg = 2 tablets. Doses that need more than a few tablets or unusual fractions should be double-checked.
答案: B · Paracetamol (acetaminophen)
Paracetamol passes into milk in small amounts and is widely regarded as safe. Codeine can cause dangerous opioid levels in babies of ultra-rapid metaboliser mothers, aspirin carries a Reye's risk and pethidine's metabolite accumulates in infants.
答案: B · Rapid high doses can damage hearing
High plasma levels of loop diuretics can cause tinnitus and hearing loss (ototoxicity), especially with fast injection, renal impairment or other ototoxic drugs such as aminoglycosides. Large IV doses are therefore given slowly.
答案: B · Assess the patient and suction if secretions are present
High-pressure alarms are caused by secretions, coughing, biting the tube, kinked tubing or bronchospasm. With secretions heard, suctioning is the logical first step after a quick assessment. Low-pressure alarms suggest a leak or disconnection. Alarms must never be silenced without finding the cause.
答案: B · Changes in mood, such as irritability, low mood or anger
Levetiracetam is widely used and has few drug interactions, but it can cause mood changes, irritability, depression and, rarely, suicidal thoughts. Patients and families should report these. Gum overgrowth is linked to phenytoin.
答案: B · "I will buy corn plasters from the pharmacy for my corn."
Medicated corn plasters contain acids that can burn the skin and cause ulcers in people with neuropathy or poor circulation. Corns and calluses should be treated by a podiatrist.
答案: D · High bilirubin with a markedly raised ALP and GGT
Cholestasis raises alkaline phosphatase and gamma-GT, with conjugated bilirubin. Hepatocellular injury, such as hepatitis, mainly raises ALT and AST.
答案: B · 停止输注,保留套管针以回抽,并遵循规程
发疱剂外渗可造成严重的组织损伤。应立即停止输注,尝试通过套管针回抽药物,然后遵循具体规程(长春碱类如长春新碱通常采用热敷,可能使用透明质酸酶,而蒽环类药物通常采用冷敷),抬高肢体,记录并通知团队。
答案: A · Iron deficiency anaemia
Pica, the craving for non-food substances, is associated with iron deficiency. Eating clay or soil can also expose the mother to toxins and parasites. Haemoglobin and ferritin should be checked.
答案: C · 确保母婴不被单独留下,并安排紧急精神科评估
产后不久出现幻觉提示产后精神病,对母婴都有风险。应确保持续安全的看护并紧急请专科评估。
答案: D · 0 至 10
FLACC 有五个类别,每个评 0、1 或 2 分,因此总分为 0–10,与数字自我报告量表相似。
答案: B · About 67 mL per hour
First 10 kg: 1000 mL; next 10 kg: 500 mL; remaining 5 kg: 5 × 20 = 100 mL. Total = 1600 mL per day, and 1600 ÷ 24 ≈ 67 mL per hour.
答案: C · It blocks NMDA glutamate receptors
Memantine is an NMDA receptor antagonist used in moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease. It may be combined with a cholinesterase inhibitor.
答案: A · Water intoxication from psychogenic polydipsia
Some patients with chronic psychosis drink excessive water, which dilutes sodium and can cause confusion, seizures and coma. The nurse reports the result, monitors neurological status and follows orders for fluid restriction and regular weights.
答案: T = 40.2 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 1.92 L
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 7 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 0.87 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: R = 50 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
使用微滴输液器(60 gtt/mL)时,gtt/min 等于 mL/h。
答案: R = 30 gtt/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: V = 5.8 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 37.5 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: I = 1680 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 375 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: MFS = 50
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
答案: HCO₃⁻ = 37.65 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: AGc = 15.5 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: QTc = 0.42 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
在通常上限之内(男性约 0.45 s,女性约 0.46 s)。(420 ms)
答案: 心室起搏心律
起搏心律:起搏器脉冲表现为一条细而垂直的起搏钉样信号。心室钉样信号之后的 QRS 是增宽的(0.12 s 或以上),因为冲动是从导线经心肌传播,而不是经传导系统;右心室起搏时,在 II 导联上通常以负向为主。P 波之前的钉样信号表示心房起搏;双腔(房室)起搏器则表现为心房钉样信号加 P 波,再经过程控的房室延迟,出现心室钉样信号和增宽的 QRS。夺获是指每个钉样信号之后都跟着一次除极。夺获失败是指钉样信号之后没有 P 波或 QRS;感知不良(钉样信号无视患者自己的心搏)和起搏不良(该出现钉样信号时没有)是另外两种典型的故障。
起搏产生的 QRS 本来就是增宽的;不要称它为束支传导阻滞或室性心律。
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