感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Why are older adults at higher risk of dehydration?
A patient who had a GCS of 15 this morning now opens their eyes only to voice and is confused. What should the nurse do?
Why is keeping a patient warm (normothermia) during surgery part of infection prevention?
Which patient should the nurse assess first?
一名护理助理报告说某患者的血压是 168/98 mmHg(早些时候是 130/80),且患者头痛。RN 应怎么做?
A patient in acute mania paces constantly, has lost weight and will not sit down to eat. Which intervention is most helpful?
A patient on the ward has shingles with open blisters. Which people are most at risk from contact?
严重高钾血症的经典心电图改变是什么?
A patient is on an IV insulin infusion protocol in the ICU. How often is the blood glucose usually checked?
一名患者的钾几个月来一直是 3.4–3.6 mEq/L,今天的一次结果是 5.4 mEq/L。患者感觉良好,心电图正常。最好的下一步是什么?
下列哪一项是长期口服糖皮质激素的著名不良反应?
A patient's record shows anaphylaxis to penicillin. Amoxicillin has been prescribed. What should the nurse do?
A patient with heart failure is comfortable at rest but becomes breathless walking across a room. Which NYHA class fits best?
A patient with squamous cell lung cancer becomes confused, thirsty and constipated, with abdominal pain. Which electrolyte disturbance is most likely?
A patient's potassium stays low despite replacement. Which other level should be checked?
A patient with a new arm fistula says their hand on that side is cold, pale and painful, especially during dialysis. What is the concern?
What are anticipatory ("just in case") medicines at the end of life usually prescribed for?
A competent adult who is a Jehovah's Witness refuses blood transfusion before major surgery. What should the nurse do?
A newborn has flat, blue-grey patches over the lower back and buttocks. How should the nurse interpret this?
A fetal tracing shows a smooth, wave-like pattern with no variability, like a sine wave. What should the nurse suspect?
After a cardiac catheterisation through the femoral artery, which assessment is essential?
一名学龄儿童因 ADHD 服用哌甲酯。哪项指导要点最重要?
What is the Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS) used for?
An 81-year-old woman's memory has slowly worsened over 2 years. She repeats questions and gets lost in familiar places, but she is alert and her attention is normal. Which condition is most likely?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次滴速计算得到 197.022 gtt/min。 本练习的规则是:滴速取整到最接近的整滴。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注的给药速率为 20 mcg/min。请把这个剂量速率D用 mg/h 表示。
某患者体重 15 kg,医嘱为单次给药 10 mg/kg。求剂量 D(mg)。
处方为 4800 单位的药物,药液规格为 10000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求以 30 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一袋中含有 1 g 药物,溶于 250 mL。医嘱为每分钟 3 mg。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含 50 单位普通胰岛素、容量 50 mL 的输液以 15 mL/h 输注。患者每小时接受多少单位 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 80 kg 的患者的医嘱为norepinephrine 16 mcg/min。输液袋中含 8 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 104 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 08:30 开始用输液泵以 80 mL/h 输注。到 10:00 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 轻度受限; 潮湿程度: 很少潮湿; 活动: 经常步行; 活动能力: 轻度受限; 营养: 可能不足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 无明显问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 16 次/分,SpO₂ 89%正在补充吸氧,血压 84/50 mmHg,脉搏 58 次/分,清醒,体温 35.5 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 12 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
练习数值:Na⁺ 140,Cl⁻ 101,HCO₃⁻ 17 mmol/L。使用 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) 计算 Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻)。保留两位小数。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房与心室之间存在传导问题。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
答案: A · Their sense of thirst is often reduced
Ageing blunts thirst and reduces body water and the kidneys' ability to concentrate urine. Older patients often need to be offered and helped with drinks.
答案: A · Treat it as deterioration and escalate urgently
The score has dropped to about 13. Any new fall in consciousness or new confusion needs urgent escalation, a full ABCDE assessment and a check of glucose.
答案: C · Low body temperature reduces blood flow and immune function in the wound
Hypothermia causes vasoconstriction and less oxygen in the wound, which weakens the immune defense. Keeping the patient warm is linked to fewer surgical site infections.
答案: D · A patient on chemotherapy with a new temperature of 38.4 °C (101.1 °F)
Fever in a patient who may be neutropenic can be the first sign of sepsis and needs urgent assessment. The other needs are real but stable and can wait a short time.
答案: A · 评估患者,复测血压,并寻找症状
血压突然升高并伴有头痛是 RN 必须评估的变化。等待一小时会延误护理,而辅助人员不发药,也不决定治疗。
答案: B · Offer high-calorie finger foods and drinks the patient can take while moving
Patients in mania may be too active to sit and eat. Portable high-calorie foods and fluids help meet physiological needs, which are a priority.
答案: B · Pregnant women and immunocompromised people who have not had chickenpox
Someone who has never had chickenpox can catch chickenpox from contact with shingles blisters. Non-immune pregnant and immunocompromised people are at particular risk, so lesions are covered and precautions followed.
答案: A · 高尖的 T 波
高钾血症引起 T 波高尖,随后 QRS 增宽,可能出现正弦波样图形并心搏骤停。低钾血症引起 T 波低平和 U 波。
答案: C · About every hour
IV insulin acts quickly and has a short half-life, so glucose is usually checked hourly (or as the protocol specifies) and the rate adjusted. This reduces the risk of hypoglycemia and keeps glucose in the target range.
答案: A · 检查样本是如何采集的,评估患者并重复检测
突然孤立的升高可能是真实的变化,例如由新药或肾损伤引起,也可能是样本问题,如溶血或处理前延迟。护士应评估患者,通知医疗人员并安排重复检测。核对依据: Hyperkalemia · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2025)
答案: A · 骨质疏松
长期使用糖皮质激素会减少骨形成并增加骨折风险。它们还会引起体重增加、血糖升高、高血压和感染风险增加。
答案: B · Withhold it and contact the prescriber, as amoxicillin is a penicillin
Amoxicillin is a penicillin, so it must not be given to someone with penicillin anaphylaxis. The nurse holds the dose, informs the prescriber and makes sure the allergy is clearly recorded.
答案: D · Class III
NYHA class I has no limitation, class II slight limitation with ordinary activity, class III marked limitation with less than ordinary activity but comfortable at rest, and class IV symptoms at rest. The class guides treatment and prognosis.
答案: D · Hypercalcaemia
Squamous cell lung cancer can secrete PTH-related protein, and bone metastases can release calcium. Hypercalcaemia causes confusion, thirst, polyuria, constipation, abdominal pain and arrhythmias ("bones, stones, groans and psychiatric overtones"). Treatment includes IV fluids and bisphosphonates.
答案: B · Magnesium
Hypomagnesaemia increases potassium loss in the urine and makes hypokalaemia hard to correct. Magnesium is checked and replaced as well.
答案: B · Steal syndrome, which needs urgent review
In steal syndrome, the fistula diverts arterial blood from the hand, causing ischaemia: coldness, pallor, pain, numbness or weakness. It must be reported urgently, because severe cases can cause tissue loss.
答案: B · Pain, nausea, agitation and respiratory secretions
Anticipatory medicines are prescribed in advance, usually for subcutaneous use, so that common end-of-life symptoms can be treated quickly without delay, especially at home.
答案: A · Respect the decision, document it and inform the team
An informed refusal by a competent adult must be respected. The team discusses which products and alternatives (such as cell salvage or iron) the patient accepts, documents the decision and plans to reduce blood loss.
答案: A · Harmless dermal melanocytosis, to be documented
Congenital dermal melanocytosis (Mongolian spots) are harmless and usually fade over years. They should be documented clearly so they are not mistaken later for bruises.
答案: A · Severe fetal anaemia
A sinusoidal pattern is a regular, smooth undulating rhythm without variability. It is associated with severe fetal anaemia, for example from isoimmunisation or fetomaternal haemorrhage, and needs urgent evaluation.
答案: C · Pulse, colour, warmth and sensation of the leg below the puncture site
After catheterisation, the nurse checks the puncture site for bleeding and the affected leg for pulses, colour, temperature and sensation to detect clotting or bleeding. The leg is kept straight for the time set by local policy.
答案: D · 在早晨服药,并监测食欲、睡眠和生长
兴奋剂可降低食欲并引起失眠,因此应在一天中较早的时间给药。治疗期间需监测身高、体重、血压和心率。
答案: B · To screen for and monitor tardive dyskinesia
The AIMS is a structured examination of involuntary movements of the face, limbs and trunk. It is done at baseline and regularly during long-term antipsychotic treatment so tardive dyskinesia is detected early.
答案: A · A neurocognitive disorder such as Alzheimer's disease
Gradual, progressive memory loss with impaired daily functioning and normal alertness suggests dementia, most commonly Alzheimer's disease. Delirium is acute and fluctuating with impaired attention.
答案: x = 197 gtt/min
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: D = 1.2 mg/h
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: D = 150 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 0.48 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 30 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
使用微滴输液器(60 gtt/mL)时,gtt/min 等于 mL/h。
答案: R = 45 mL/h
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: D = 15 件/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 30 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: U = 0.9 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 880 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 19
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 高
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
答案: PaCO₂ = 26 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: Δ 比值 = 1.429
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
介于 1 和 2 之间:单纯高阴离子间隙酸中毒。
答案: 室上性心动过速(SVT)
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。 窄 QRS 心动过速与停顿:室上性心动过速(SVT)是规则的心动过速,约 150–250 次/分钟,QRS 波群较窄;P 波通常看不到,因为它们隐藏在 QRS 波群或 T 波中。成人静息时的窦性心动过速通常低于约 150 次/分钟,且每个 QRS 前都有可见的 P 波;伴 2:1 传导的心房扑动常在约 150 次/分钟,并显示锯齿波。窦性停搏是指窦房结暂时停止发放冲动:出现既无 P 波也无 QRS 的停顿,其长度不是 P–P 周期的整数倍(恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞)。
答案: 二度 II 型房室传导阻滞
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
II 型和三度阻滞可能突然进展,所以教科书将它们列为比 I 型更严重。
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