感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
How long should each pass of oropharyngeal or tracheal suction usually last?
Where must the final identity check before a blood transfusion take place?
Why are patients on long-term corticosteroids at higher risk from infections?
Which patient should the nurse assess first?
Which newborn finding needs prompt reporting?
An older patient with heart failure is receiving a second unit of blood. She becomes breathless, with crackles in both lungs and a rising blood pressure. What is most likely happening?
For a patient in skin traction on the leg, which is correct?
A nurse notices that a wrong dose of a drug was prepared but was caught before it was given. What should be done?
Which change in clotting tests is normal in late pregnancy?
In the first 24 hours after a major burn, which laboratory pattern is most expected?
药物的清除率描述的是什么?
A patient with type 2 diabetes starts a high dose of prednisolone for a flare of COPD. Which change should the nurse expect?
A peripheral cannula site is red, warm, tender and swollen along the vein. What should the nurse do?
A nurse teaches a patient how to measure blood pressure at home. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A patient on ciclosporin or tacrolimus asks about grapefruit juice. Which advice is correct?
一名服用锂盐的患者多尿、口渴,使用去氨加压素后尿液仍不能浓缩。最可能的原因是什么?
A patient on warfarin is booked for elective surgery with a high bleeding risk. What is usual practice?
At the end of an operation, the final count shows one swab missing. What should happen?
A woman at 24 weeks says she craves eating ice and clay. What should the nurse assess for?
A woman at 8 weeks takes valproate for epilepsy. She asks whether she should stop it. Which response is best?
Which instruction about giving oral liquid iron to a child is correct?
一名已经学会如厕的 3 岁儿童在住院期间开始尿床。家长很担心。护士应怎么说?
Which postpartum presentation is a psychiatric emergency?
一名精神分裂症患者拒绝服用抗精神病药,说它让他觉得迟钝。最佳的初始回应是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 103.4 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了3 fl oz / 果汁, 1½ tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, ¼ 杯 / 茶, 1½ tsp / 止咳糖浆。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
某患者体重 70 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 20 mg/kg,分 2 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
处方剂量为 0.18 mg。安瓿每 mL 含 1000 微克。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 4 小时内输入 1500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一组输液以 28 滴/分的速度经 20 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 900 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 25 000 单位,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 14 units/kg/h,患者体重 69 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dobutamine 500 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 19 mL/h 输注。患者体重 60 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 67 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 100 mL/h 输注。到 16:00 时已输入 250 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张练习图表记录了 GCS 9,其中 E3 和 V2。记录的运动评分M是多少,它描述的是哪种反应?请给出数字。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 20 次/分,SpO₂ 98%吸室内空气,血压 124/74 mmHg,脉搏 88 次/分,清醒,体温 38.4 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
练习数值:Na⁺ 130 mmol/L,葡萄糖 25.9 mmol/L,尿素 8.5 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
在海平面,某练习血气取自吸入 35% 氧气时,显示 PaO₂ 50 mmHg (6.7 kPa),PaCO₂ 29 mmHg (3.9 kPa)。用 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 求A–a 梯度。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房扑动。测量扑动波间期,求出心房率(单位:次/分)。
这位患者装有起搏器。请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。点击你的答案。
答案: C · No more than about 10–15 seconds
Suction removes oxygen as well as secretions. Keeping passes short, oxygenating as needed and watching SpO₂ reduces hypoxia and airway trauma.
答案: A · At the bedside, with the patient and their wristband
The final check matches the patient's identity, by asking and from the wristband, with the blood bag and prescription at the bedside. Most wrong-blood events come from checks done away from the patient.
答案: D · Steroids suppress the immune response and can hide signs of infection
Corticosteroids reduce white cell activity and inflammation, so infections develop more easily and may cause less fever or redness. Nurses watch closely for subtle signs.
答案: D · A patient on chemotherapy with a new temperature of 38.4 °C (101.1 °F)
Fever in a patient who may be neutropenic can be the first sign of sepsis and needs urgent assessment. The other needs are real but stable and can wait a short time.
答案: C · Jaundice that appears within the first 24 hours
Jaundice in the first 24 hours is not physiological and may point to hemolysis or infection. Mild jaundice after the first day, milia and acrocyanosis are common, expected findings.
答案: C · Transfusion-associated circulatory overload
Breathlessness, crackles and hypertension during a transfusion in a patient with heart failure suggest circulatory overload. The nurse stops the transfusion, sits the patient up, gives oxygen as prescribed and informs the provider, who may prescribe a diuretic.
答案: B · The weights hang freely and do not rest on the bed or floor
Weights must hang freely so the pull is continuous and in line. Nurses also check the skin, circulation and sensation of the limb.
答案: D · Report it as a near miss through the incident reporting system
Near misses are reported so that causes can be studied and systems improved. A just, open culture encourages reporting without blame.
答案: A · Fibrinogen and D-dimer rise
Pregnancy increases clotting factors and fibrinogen and raises the D-dimer, which helps prevent bleeding at delivery but raises the risk of clots. Because D-dimer is normally raised, it is less useful for excluding DVT in pregnancy.核对依据: D-dimer Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: A · High potassium and high hematocrit
Early after a burn, damaged cells release potassium, and plasma shifts into the tissues, which concentrates the blood and raises the hematocrit. Later, as fluid returns and the kidneys excrete potassium, hypokalemia can develop.核对依据: High potassium level · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: A · 单位时间内被清除药物的血浆容积
清除率是单位时间内药物被清除的血浆容积。它与给药速率共同决定稳态浓度。
答案: A · Higher blood glucose, so more frequent glucose checks are needed
Glucocorticoids raise blood glucose by increasing liver glucose production and insulin resistance. Glucose is monitored more often, and diabetes treatment may need to be increased during the course.
答案: C · Remove the cannula, document and monitor the site
Redness, pain, warmth and swelling along the vein indicate phlebitis. The cannula is removed, the site is observed for infection and the event is documented. Regular visual phlebitis scoring and removing cannulas that are no longer needed reduce the risk.
答案: A · "I will measure it straight after my morning jog."
Home readings should be taken after resting quietly for about 5 minutes, sitting with back supported, feet flat and the arm supported at heart level, with no recent exercise, caffeine or smoking. Two readings are often recorded. Measuring after exercise gives falsely high results.
答案: C · Avoid it, because it can raise the drug levels
Grapefruit inhibits the CYP3A4 enzyme and can raise ciclosporin and tacrolimus levels, leading to toxicity. Patients are advised to avoid it, and to check before starting any new medicine or supplement.
答案: C · 锂引起的肾性尿崩症
锂是肾性尿崩症的常见原因,此时集合管对 ADH 没有反应,因此去氨加压素几乎无效。处理包括由专科复核锂的使用、保证饮水,并监测血钠和锂浓度。
答案: D · Stop it about 5 days before and check the INR
Warfarin is usually stopped about 5 days before such surgery, and the INR is checked beforehand. Patients at high clotting risk may be given bridging therapy with a heparin, as planned by the team.
答案: D · Tell the surgeon, search, and X-ray if it is not found
Any discrepancy is reported immediately, the wound is checked before closure, the area and waste are searched, and an X-ray is taken if the item is not found. The event is documented and reported.
答案: C · Iron deficiency anaemia
Pica, the craving for non-food substances, is associated with iron deficiency. Eating clay or soil can also expose the mother to toxins and parasites. Haemoglobin and ferritin should be checked.
答案: A · Do not stop it suddenly; arrange urgent specialist review
Valproate is strongly teratogenic, but stopping antiepileptics suddenly can cause seizures that harm mother and fetus. She needs urgent specialist review to change treatment safely, ideally before conception.
答案: D · Give it with a syringe or straw towards the back of the mouth; dark stools are expected
Liquid iron can stain teeth, so it is given by syringe or straw and the teeth are brushed afterwards. Milk and antacids reduce absorption, while vitamin C can help. Dark stools are a harmless, expected effect.
答案: B · 退行是对住院应激的常见反应,通常会过去;不要惩罚孩子
暂时性退行在住院的幼儿中很常见。应无惩罚地接受它,保持熟悉的日常规律并表扬孩子;技能通常在出院后恢复。
答案: D · Confusion, hallucinations and rapidly changing mood a few days after birth
Postpartum psychosis usually begins within days to weeks of birth and can include confusion, delusions and hallucinations. It carries risks to mother and baby and needs immediate assessment, often in hospital.
答案: D · 了解他的原因和副作用,并告知团队,以便复核治疗
患者有权被倾听,并且在大多数情况下有权拒绝治疗。了解原因和副作用有助于团队复核治疗。只有在特定的法律和政策条件下才允许隐蔽给药。
答案: T = 39.7 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 180 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 700 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 0.18 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: R = 94 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:94 滴/分。
答案: t = 10.7 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 19.3 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 10.6 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 0.68 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 7.5 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 7 h 30 min,所以袋子大约在 23:30 输完。
答案: M = 4
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: Osm = 294 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: A–a 梯度 = 163.3 mmHg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 心房率 = 250 bpm
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 起搏心律,夺获失败
起搏心律:起搏器脉冲表现为一条细而垂直的起搏钉样信号。心室钉样信号之后的 QRS 是增宽的(0.12 s 或以上),因为冲动是从导线经心肌传播,而不是经传导系统;右心室起搏时,在 II 导联上通常以负向为主。P 波之前的钉样信号表示心房起搏;双腔(房室)起搏器则表现为心房钉样信号加 P 波,再经过程控的房室延迟,出现心室钉样信号和增宽的 QRS。夺获是指每个钉样信号之后都跟着一次除极。夺获失败是指钉样信号之后没有 P 波或 QRS;感知不良(钉样信号无视患者自己的心搏)和起搏不良(该出现钉样信号时没有)是另外两种典型的故障。
夺获失败:起搏器发放了脉冲,但心脏没有反应。教科书把它视为需要紧急报告的情况,因为患者可能依赖起搏器。
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