感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A dying patient is no longer drinking and breathes through the mouth. What mouth care is most appropriate?
哪组征象提示患者可能处于生命的最后几天?
一名疑似结核病患者住在负压病房。下列哪项做法是正确的?
During a disaster, the hospital needs to free beds quickly. Which patient is the best candidate for early discharge?
A patient is raising his voice, pacing and clenching his fists. What should the nurse do first?
After cardiac surgery, a patient becomes hypotensive with distended neck veins and muffled heart sounds, and chest drain output has suddenly stopped. What should the nurse suspect?
A patient is receiving enteral feeding through a nasogastric tube. How should they be positioned during feeding?
During a blood transfusion, an older patient with heart failure becomes breathless with a rising blood pressure, raised JVP and crackles in the lungs. What is the most likely cause?
Why must a blue-top (citrate) coagulation tube be filled to the correct level?
Three days after starting haloperidol, a patient has a temperature of 40 °C, severe muscle rigidity and confusion. Which laboratory result would the nurse expect?
A patient is starting olanzapine. Which monitoring is most important over the following months?
A nurse gave a patient ten times the prescribed dose of hydromorphone. The patient is currently alert. What is the most appropriate sequence of actions?
一名服用华法林的患者开始每天吃大量菠菜和羽衣甘蓝沙拉。主要的担忧是什么?
A patient has new chest pain at rest. The ECG shows ST depression, but serial troponins remain normal. Which diagnosis fits best?
What is the main purpose of continuous bladder irrigation after a transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP)?
A patient with suspected meningitis has a GCS of 9 and pupils that have become unequal. A doctor plans an immediate lumbar puncture. What is the main concern?
After laparoscopic cholecystectomy, a patient has pain in the right shoulder. What is the most likely cause?
一名肺癌患者出现面部肿胀、颈静脉怒张,平卧时呼吸困难加重。可能是哪种急症?
哪项发现提示硫酸镁中毒?
A woman at 16 weeks says she drinks four cups of strong coffee a day. Which response is most appropriate?
A 16-year-old starts an SSRI antidepressant. What is especially important to monitor in the first weeks?
Two weeks after a ventriculoperitoneal shunt was inserted, an infant has a fever, irritability and redness along the shunt tract. What should the nurse suspect?
A woman was assaulted 10 days ago. She has nightmares, avoids the area and feels detached. According to DSM-5, which diagnosis fits the timing best?
A 76-year-old with no history of mental illness suddenly develops paranoid ideas and hallucinations. What is the most appropriate first step?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 37.3 °C。用 °F = °C × 9/5 + 32 把它换算为华氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了2 tsp / 止咳糖浆, ½ fl oz / 果汁, 1 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
5 mL 的 0.5%(w/v)溶液中含有多少毫克药物 m?
处方为 440 单位的药物,药液规格为 1000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求在 12 小时内输入 1500 mL。4 小时后你发现袋中还剩 1120 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
将 500 mg 药物稀释于 250 mL 中,通过滴系数为 15 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。医嘱为每小时 200 mg。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 50 kg 的患者推注肝素 80 units/kg。药瓶规格为 5 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dopamine 800 mg,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 10 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 109 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 61 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 60 mL/h 输注。到 22:00 时已输入 500 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 非常受限; 潮湿程度: 偶尔潮湿; 活动: 卧床不起; 活动能力: 轻度受限; 营养: 极好; 摩擦力和剪切力: 潜在问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 无、卧床休息或由护士协助; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 受损; 精神状态: 高估或忘记自身局限。使用分界值 0–24 低,25–44 中度,45 或以上高,点击跌倒风险等级。
某练习血气显示 PaCO₂ 61 mmHg (8.1 kPa)。利用规则:在急性呼吸性酸中毒中,PaCO₂ 每比 40 高出 10 mmHg,HCO₃⁻ 升高 1 mmol/L,以HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L 为起点,求预期HCO₃⁻。
在海平面,某练习血气取自吸入 40% 氧气时,显示 PaO₂ 74 mmHg (9.9 kPa),PaCO₂ 29 mmHg (3.9 kPa)。用 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 求A–a 梯度。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
依次按五个步骤解读这条 II 导联心电图:心率、节律、P 波、PR 间期、QRS 时限。你在哪一步发现第一个异常?点击它。
答案: C · Keep the mouth and lips moist with frequent gentle care
Frequent gentle mouth care with moist swabs, water sprays and lip balm keeps the patient comfortable. Forcing fluids risks choking and aspiration.
答案: B · 呼吸方式改变、皮肤发凉有花斑以及进食进水减少
临近死亡时,呼吸可能变得不规则或有杂音,皮肤可能发凉并出现花斑,进食进水减少,睡眠增多。护理重点转为舒适、口腔护理和家属支持。
答案: D · 除进出外,保持房门关闭
房门应保持关闭,以维持流入房间的气流。应限制访客,并根据规定指导其做好呼吸防护。
答案: A · A patient admitted overnight for observation who is now stable with normal tests
In a surge, stable patients who could be safely cared for at home are discharged first. Patients who are unstable or need close monitoring or titrated infusions must stay.
答案: B · Speak calmly, keep a safe distance and invite him to talk about what is wrong
Early verbal de-escalation, with a calm voice and a safe distance, is the first approach for rising agitation. Restraint is a last resort, and crowding the patient can make things worse.
答案: B · Cardiac tamponade
Hypotension, distended neck veins and muffled heart sounds suggest fluid compressing the heart. A sudden stop in chest drain output can mean clots are trapping blood around the heart; this is an emergency.
答案: B · With the head of the bed raised to at least 30 degrees
Keeping the head raised to at least 30–45° during feeding and for a period afterwards lowers the risk of aspiration pneumonia.
答案: A · Transfusion-associated circulatory overload
TACO causes pulmonary oedema with hypertension and raised venous pressure, especially in older people and those with heart or kidney disease. TRALI usually presents with hypotension and no fluid overload signs.
答案: B · The blood-to-anticoagulant ratio must be right for accurate clotting times
Citrate tubes contain a set volume of anticoagulant. If the tube is underfilled, the extra citrate falsely prolongs the PT and aPTT, so the laboratory may reject the sample.
答案: B · A very high creatine kinase (CK)
These signs suggest neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a medical emergency. Muscle rigidity releases CK, often to very high levels, and the white count is often raised. Myoglobin can damage the kidneys. The antipsychotic is stopped and supportive care is started.
答案: A · Weight, blood glucose and blood lipids
Olanzapine and several other atypical antipsychotics cause weight gain, insulin resistance and dyslipidaemia. Weight, waist size, glucose and lipids are checked regularly.
答案: B · Monitor closely, have naloxone ready, inform the prescriber and report
The patient may become sedated and develop respiratory depression later, so close monitoring and a ready antidote are needed. The prescriber is informed, the patient is told honestly, and the error is reported to improve the system.
答案: D · 额外的维生素 K 可能使 INR 降低
维生素 K 摄入量骤然增加可降低 INR 并增加血栓风险。患者不必避免这些食物,但应保持摄入量稳定,并把饮食的大幅变化告知抗凝服务人员。
答案: A · Unstable angina
Unstable angina is new, worsening or rest angina without a troponin rise. It is an acute coronary syndrome and is managed urgently because it can progress to infarction. Stable angina is predictable and exertional. NSTEMI has a rising troponin.
答案: A · To stop blood clots from blocking the catheter
After TURP, the raw prostate bed bleeds, and clots can block the catheter and cause retention and bladder spasms. Continuous irrigation through a three-way catheter keeps the drainage flowing.
答案: C · Raised pressure in the skull, so the procedure could cause herniation
Reduced consciousness and unequal pupils suggest raised ICP. A lumbar puncture in this situation may cause brain herniation, so imaging comes first, and antibiotics are not delayed. The nurse should raise this concern.
答案: D · Gas used during surgery irritating the diaphragm
Carbon dioxide used to inflate the abdomen irritates the diaphragm, causing referred shoulder-tip pain. It usually settles within a few days; walking and simple analgesia help.
答案: A · 上腔静脉阻塞
肿瘤可压迫或侵犯上腔静脉,引起面部和手臂肿胀、胸壁静脉扩张、头痛和呼吸困难。应让患者坐起并紧急评估;治疗包括类固醇、支架置入以及放疗或化疗。
答案: A · 深腱反射消失
膝腱反射消失是中毒的早期征象,随后出现呼吸抑制和意识水平下降。反射活跃伴阵挛提示子痫前期加重,而非镁中毒。
答案: B · Advise limiting caffeine to about 200 mg a day, roughly two cups of coffee
Guidelines advise limiting caffeine to about 200 mg a day in pregnancy because higher intakes are linked to low birth weight and miscarriage. Energy drinks and some teas also contain caffeine.
答案: A · Worsening mood or new suicidal thoughts
Antidepressants may be linked to increased suicidal thinking in some young people, especially early in treatment or after dose changes. Close follow-up, safety planning and involving the family are advised.
答案: A · Shunt infection; report it urgently
Shunt infections usually occur within the first months after surgery and may show fever, redness or swelling along the tract, poor feeding and irritability, sometimes with signs of shunt blockage. Urgent assessment, cultures and antibiotics are needed.
答案: D · Acute stress disorder
Acute stress disorder lasts from 3 days to 1 month after a trauma. If symptoms last longer than 1 month, PTSD is diagnosed. ICD-11 does not have this diagnosis and describes an acute stress reaction as a normal response rather than a disorder.
答案: A · Look for medical causes, such as delirium, medicines, infection or a neurocognitive disorder
New psychosis in an older adult needs a full medical work-up. Delirium, medicine effects, infections, metabolic problems, dementia and brain lesions are common causes.
答案: T = 99.1 °F
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 40 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: m = 25 mg
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: V = 0.44 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 140 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: R = 25 gtt/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: V = 0.8 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 40.9 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 1.64 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 8.3 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 8 h 20 min,所以袋子大约在 06:20 输完。
答案: B = 15
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 中度风险
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: HCO₃⁻ = 26.1 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: A–a 梯度 = 174.9 mmHg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 窦性心动过速
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: PR 间期
每条心电图的五个步骤:1. 心率(300 法或 1500 法;若不规则则用 6 秒法);2. 节律:R–R 间期是否相等;3. P 波:是否存在、在 II 导联直立、每个 QRS 之前各有一个且形态一致;4. PR 间期:0.12–0.20 s 且恒定;5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s。五个步骤做完之后才命名节律。正常窦性心律五项全部符合:60–100 次/分,规则,每个 QRS 之前有直立 P 波,PR 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 低于 0.12 s。
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