感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
What is medicines reconciliation on admission?
一名 70 kg、留置导尿管的术后患者在过去三小时内每小时尿量为 20 mL。最佳的解读是什么?
在给一片药之前,患者说:“这片药和我平时吃的不一样。”护士应怎么做?
A nurse teaches a patient about home oxygen safety. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A conscious patient with hypoglycemia drank juice 15 minutes ago. The glucose is now 62 mg/dL (3.4 mmol/L). What should the nurse do next?
Four patients arrive at the emergency department at the same time. Who should be seen first?
Which is the correct technique for using a metered-dose inhaler without a spacer?
一名大手术后的患者血压下降、心率上升,腹部肿胀紧绷,但伤口敷料是干的。你应怀疑什么?
A patient taking empagliflozin (an SGLT2 inhibitor) has glucose in the urine but a normal blood glucose. What is the best interpretation?
A patient has a positive hepatitis C antibody (anti-HCV) test. What is the most appropriate next step?
In which patient is bupropion contraindicated?
A patient with an epidural infusion of local anaesthetic becomes hypotensive. What is the most likely mechanism?
After coronary artery bypass surgery through a median sternotomy, which instruction is usually given for the first several weeks?
Seconds after an intramuscular injection, a patient becomes pale, sweaty and faint, with a heart rate of 48/min. There is no rash, wheeze or swelling, and they recover quickly when laid flat. What is the most likely cause?
A patient on peritoneal dialysis has gained weight and has higher glucose levels. Which part of the treatment is the likely cause?
The day after a lumbar puncture, a patient has a headache that is severe when standing and almost gone when lying flat. Temperature and neck movement are normal. What is the most likely cause?
How should pancreatic enzyme replacement capsules usually be taken?
Six hours after surgery, a patient has not passed urine, has lower abdominal discomfort and a bladder scan shows 750 mL. What should the nurse do?
A woman at 22 weeks describes sharp pain on one side of the lower abdomen when she stands up quickly. Her vital signs and fetal heart rate are normal. What is the most likely cause?
A newborn's bilirubin is rising quickly at 30 hours despite phototherapy, and the baby is lethargic with an arched back and high-pitched cry. What does this suggest?
Which measure is most important in preventing infection in a child with neutropenia?
一名 6 岁的血友病患儿摔倒后膝盖肿胀疼痛。优先事项是什么?
An agitated patient has not responded to verbal de-escalation. A PRN medicine is prescribed. What is the most appropriate step?
A patient starting clozapine is being taught about blood tests. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 35.8 °C。用 °F = °C × 9/5 + 32 把它换算为华氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了½ 杯 / 茶, 3 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, ½ tsp / 止咳糖浆, 8 fl oz / 果汁。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
某患者体重 25 kg,医嘱为单次给药 20 mg/kg。求剂量 D(mg)。
你需要用 10%(w/v)储备液配制 100 mL 2%(w/v)溶液。 必须向储备液中加入多少水 W?
医嘱要求以 150 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一组输液以 28 滴/分的速度经 15 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 450 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份输液含普通胰岛素 250 单位,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 0.1 units/kg/h,患者体重 52 kg。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dobutamine 250 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 34 mL/h 输注。患者体重 103 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 06:00 开始用输液泵以 80 mL/h 输注。到 14:00 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的脉搏为 87 次/分,血压为 105/58 mmHg。求休克指数SI = HR/SBP。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 14 次/分,SpO₂ 89%吸室内空气,血压 130/78 mmHg,脉搏 88 次/分,清醒,体温 38.0 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 18 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.29,PaCO₂ 30 mmHg (4.0 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 14 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Bazett 公式 QTc = QT/√RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
依次按五个步骤解读这条 II 导联心电图:心率、节律、P 波、PR 间期、QRS 时限。你在哪一步发现第一个异常?点击它。
答案: A · Getting an accurate list of the medicines taken before admission
Medicines reconciliation compares the patient's own medicines with what is prescribed in hospital, using several sources, so that changes are intended and errors are avoided.
答案: B · 少尿,应予上报,因为低于 0.5 mL/kg/h
对 70 kg 的成人来说,0.5 mL/kg/h 即 35 mL/h。连续数小时尿量 20 mL/h 提示肾灌注不良或急性肾损伤。应检查导尿管并上报。
答案: C · 暂停并重新核对医嘱和药物,然后再给药
患者的疑虑是一次安全检查。护士应暂停并核对医嘱、药物、剂量和患者,必要时联系药房。有时原因是品牌不同,但必须先加以确认。
答案: C · “I can light candles at dinner if my oxygen is turned down low.”
Oxygen supports combustion, so open flames such as candles, matches, gas stoves and cigarettes must be kept away whatever the flow rate. The other statements are correct.
答案: A · Give another serving of fast-acting carbohydrate and recheck in 15 minutes
If the glucose is still below the hypoglycemia threshold after treatment (70 mg/dL in US guidance, 4.0 mmol/L in UK guidance), the fast-acting carbohydrate is repeated and the glucose rechecked. Once it is normal, a snack or meal helps keep it stable.
答案: C · An older adult with weakness on one side that began 40 minutes ago
Sudden one-sided weakness suggests a stroke, and treatment depends on how quickly it starts. Severe kidney stone pain needs prompt pain relief, but the patient is stable.
答案: B · Breathe out, then breathe in slowly and deeply while pressing the canister, then hold
The patient breathes out, seals the lips around the mouthpiece, starts breathing in slowly, presses the canister and continues a deep breath, then holds it for about 10 seconds. Spacers make coordination easier.
答案: D · 内出血
休克的血流动力学表现伴腹胀提示腹腔内出血,即使没有可见的失血也是如此。需要外科紧急评估。
答案: A · An expected effect of the drug
SGLT2 inhibitors block glucose reabsorption in the proximal tubule, so glycosuria is expected even with normal blood glucose. Urine glucose cannot be used to monitor control in these patients. The drugs also raise the risk of genital infections and DKA.核对依据: Ketones blood test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: C · Test for HCV RNA to find out whether infection is current
Anti-HCV shows exposure, but some people clear the virus and keep antibodies. An HCV RNA test shows whether the infection is current. There is no vaccine for hepatitis C, but antiviral treatment can cure most infections.核对依据: Hepatitis C · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: C · A patient with a seizure disorder or an eating disorder
Bupropion increases the risk of seizures, especially with bulimia or anorexia, where electrolyte disturbances are common. It is used for depression and as a smoking cessation aid.
答案: B · Blockade of sympathetic nerves causes vasodilation
Epidural local anaesthetics block sympathetic fibres as well as sensory nerves. This dilates blood vessels and lowers blood pressure, so fluids, position changes or vasopressors may be needed.
答案: B · Avoid heavy lifting and pushing up with the arms
The sternum is wired and takes weeks to heal. Patients are advised to avoid heavy lifting, pulling and pushing with the arms, and to support the chest with a pillow when coughing. Walking is encouraged as part of cardiac rehabilitation.
答案: B · A vasovagal reaction
Vasovagal reactions cause bradycardia, pallor, sweating and fainting, and resolve quickly when lying flat. Anaphylaxis usually causes tachycardia, airway or breathing problems and often skin changes, and does not settle on its own. If in doubt, treat as anaphylaxis.
答案: D · Glucose absorbed from the dialysis fluid
Standard PD fluids contain glucose to pull water out by osmosis. Some glucose is absorbed, adding calories and raising blood glucose. Glucose monitoring and diet advice are needed, and other solutions may be used.
答案: C · Post-dural puncture headache
A positional headache after a lumbar puncture, without fever or neck stiffness, fits a CSF leak. It is managed with rest, fluids, analgesia and caffeine, and an epidural blood patch if it persists. Fever or neck stiffness would suggest infection instead.
答案: C · With every meal and snack
Pancreatic enzymes digest fat, protein and carbohydrate, so they are taken with meals and snacks. The dose is adjusted to reduce steatorrhoea and support weight gain.
答案: D · Catheterise as per protocol or prescription
Urinary retention with a large residual volume needs bladder drainage to prevent discomfort, bladder damage and infection. Following local protocol, an in-and-out or indwelling catheter is used and the volume recorded.
答案: A · Round ligament pain
Round ligament pain is sharp, brief pain in the groin or lower abdomen with sudden movement as the uterus grows. Moving slowly and flexing the hips towards the abdomen help. Persistent or severe pain needs review.
答案: A · Acute bilirubin encephalopathy
Lethargy, poor feeding, hypertonia with arching and a high-pitched cry are signs of acute bilirubin encephalopathy. An urgent exchange transfusion may be needed to prevent permanent kernicterus.
答案: C · Careful hand hygiene by everyone in contact with the child
Thorough hand hygiene by staff, family and the child is the single most important measure. Avoiding contact with people who are unwell, good mouth and skin care and safe food handling also help.
答案: D · 按处方补充凝血因子,并对关节休息、冰敷、加压和抬高
早期补充凝血因子可止住出血。休息、冷敷、轻度加压和抬高可减轻肿胀。阿司匹林和热敷会增加出血。反复的关节出血会损害关节。
答案: C · Offer the oral medicine first, before considering an injection
Offering oral medication respects choice and is less restrictive than an injection. Covert administration is only lawful in specific, documented circumstances, not as a routine approach.
答案: C · "After a few months I can stop having blood tests."
Blood count monitoring is most frequent in the first months of clozapine treatment but continues throughout treatment, because agranulocytosis can occur at any time.
答案: T = 96.4 °F
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 407.5 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 500 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: W = 80 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: R = 50 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: t = 4 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 5.2 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 5.5 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = −145 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为负:患者丢失的液体多于摄入的液体。
答案: V = 360 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: SI = 0.83
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
高于通常的 0.5–0.7。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
答案: PaCO₂ = 35 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 适当的代偿
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: QTc = 0.39 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
在通常上限之内(男性约 0.45 s,女性约 0.46 s)。(390 ms)
答案: 折旧率
每条心电图的五个步骤:1. 心率(300 法或 1500 法;若不规则则用 6 秒法);2. 节律:R–R 间期是否相等;3. P 波:是否存在、在 II 导联直立、每个 QRS 之前各有一个且形态一致;4. PR 间期:0.12–0.20 s 且恒定;5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s。五个步骤做完之后才命名节律。正常窦性心律五项全部符合:60–100 次/分,规则,每个 QRS 之前有直立 P 波,PR 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 低于 0.12 s。
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