感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
使用前确认鼻胃管位于胃内最可靠的方法是什么?
A patient receiving chemotherapy develops a temperature of 38.3 °C. Why is this treated as an emergency?
一名护士被已知感染 HIV 的患者用过的针头刺伤。为什么必须立即上报?
A woman in late pregnancy is choking and cannot speak or cough. Which technique should the rescuer use?
一名护理助理汇报了四位患者的情况。哪项汇报需要护士首先关注?
在心脏科病房,护士应首先看哪位患者?
骨折腿部打石膏后,哪项评估最能发现骨筋膜室综合征?
一名患者的血液检查显示血钾 6.8 mmol/L,心电图显示 T 波高尖。哪种治疗能最快地保护心脏?
A patient takes valproate (valproic acid) for epilepsy. Which tests are monitored regularly?
患者早晨服药后 2 小时抽取的血锂水平为 1.0 mEq/L,开医嘱者打算增加剂量。护士应指出什么?
ACE 抑制剂典型的常见副作用是什么?
A heparin infusion contains 25,000 units in 500 mL. The order is 1,000 units per hour. What rate should be set on the pump?
Which finding shows that long-standing hypertension has caused target organ damage?
A smoker has severe shoulder and arm pain, a drooping eyelid, a small pupil and reduced sweating on the same side of the face. What should be suspected?
An 82-year-old taking apixaban fell three weeks ago. Since then their family has noticed increasing confusion and headaches. Which condition is most likely?
A patient's glucose is 6.2 mmol/L (112 mg/dL) at 03:00 and 12 mmol/L (216 mg/dL) before breakfast. No hypoglycaemia occurred overnight. What is the most likely explanation?
A patient received IV morphine 20 minutes ago and the surgical consent form has not been signed. What should the nurse do?
A patient with lung cancer becomes hypotensive and breathless, with distended neck veins and quiet heart sounds. What should the nurse suspect?
A woman at 10 weeks has morning sickness. Which suggestion is most likely to help?
A newborn has a small upper lip with a smooth philtrum, short eye openings and a small head. Which exposure during pregnancy should be considered?
Which finding is expected in a healthy 4-month-old?
A child has suspected septic shock. Which action is the most time-critical?
A woman is convinced that a famous actor she has never met is secretly in love with her and sends her signals through his films. Which type of delusion is this?
哪项发现最有助于区分 5-羟色胺综合征与抗精神病药恶性综合征?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名新生儿体重 6 lb 8 oz。按 1 lb = 16 oz 和 1 kg = 2.2 lb,求以千克表示的体重m。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注的给药速率为 40 mcg/min。请把这个剂量速率D用 mg/h 表示。
某患者体重 80 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 20 mg/kg,分 2 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
一名患者身高 145 cm,体重 53 kg。医嘱为 250 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 5 小时内输入 1000 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。
将 100 mg 药物稀释于 100 mL 中,通过滴系数为 15 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。医嘱为每小时 40 mg。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含 250 单位普通胰岛素、容量 250 mL 的输液以 8 mL/h 输注。患者每小时接受多少单位 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dobutamine 250 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 39 mL/h 输注。患者体重 89 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 100 mL/h 输注。到 15:30 时已输入 300 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张练习图表记录了 GCS 3,其中 E1 和 V1。记录的运动评分M是多少,它描述的是哪种反应?请给出数字。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 93 kg,身高 190 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
练习数值:Na⁺ 149 mmol/L,葡萄糖 30.8 mmol/L,尿素 12 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.25,PaCO₂ 21 mmHg (2.8 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 9 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。仅凭这一条心电图条带,你能为哪种解读辩护?点击你的答案。
答案: C · 检测抽吸液的 pH,必要时拍胸片
抽吸液 pH 支持管道位于胃内(英国指南为 5.5 或以下;美国指南通常为 5 或以下)。X 线是最准确的确认方法,在美国许多机构用于首次置管,并在 pH 不明确或抽不出液体时使用。注气听诊法不可靠。
答案: A · They may have neutropenic sepsis, which can quickly become fatal
Patients with a low neutrophil count may have few signs of infection apart from fever and can deteriorate fast. Urgent assessment and IV antibiotics, usually within an hour, are needed.
答案: B · 暴露后预防用药在数小时内开始效果最好
用肥皂和水清洗伤口后,护士应立即上报,以便评估暴露情况。HIV 暴露后预防应尽快开始,最好在数小时内,最晚不超过 72 小时。
答案: A · Chest thrusts
For people in late pregnancy or who are very obese, chest thrusts replace abdominal thrusts because the rescuer cannot get around the abdomen effectively. Blind finger sweeps can push the object deeper.
答案: A · 一名腹部手术后一天的患者新出现烦躁不安,心率 124 次/分
手术后新出现的烦躁不安伴心率快可能意味着出血、脓毒症或缺氧。对这名 COPD 患者,SpO₂ 90% 是预期的,6 小时 300 mL(50 mL/h)是足够的尿量。
答案: B · 一名服用地高辛的患者,脉搏 48 次/分,恶心,钾 3.0 mEq/L
服用地高辛的患者出现心动过缓和恶心提示中毒,而低钾使其更可能发生且更危险。体重的小幅变化以及已知且得到控制的房颤是稳定的。
答案: C · 疼痛与损伤程度不相称,尤其是被动牵拉时
镇痛无效且被动牵拉时加重的进行性疼痛是最早的征象。苍白、麻木和脉搏消失是晚期征象。
答案: C · 静脉注射葡萄糖酸钙
静脉注射钙剂可在数分钟内稳定心肌。随后用胰岛素加葡萄糖使钾转移到细胞内,再用其他措施将钾排出体外。
答案: B · Liver function tests and platelet count
Valproate can cause liver toxicity and thrombocytopenia, so liver tests and the platelet count are monitored. It can also raise ammonia; confusion or vomiting should prompt an ammonia level.核对依据: Valproic Acid · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2024)
答案: D · 样本是在服药后太早采集的,因此不是有效的水平
血锂水平的标准采血时间是末次服药后约 12 小时,通常在早晨服药前。服药后 2 小时的样本捕获的是吸收峰值,与目标范围不可比,因此不应据此改变剂量。
答案: C · 干咳
ACE 也会降解缓激肽。抑制该酶后,缓激肽在气道中蓄积,部分患者会出现持续干咳。
答案: B · 20 mL/h
25,000 units ÷ 500 mL = 50 units/mL, and 1,000 units/h ÷ 50 units/mL = 20 mL/h. Heparin is a high-alert drug, so the calculation and pump settings are independently double-checked.
答案: A · Left ventricular hypertrophy on the ECG
Target organ damage from hypertension includes left ventricular hypertrophy, retinopathy, chronic kidney disease with proteinuria, and stroke. Its presence changes treatment urgency and targets.
答案: C · A tumour at the apex of the lung (Pancoast tumour)
A tumour in the lung apex can invade the brachial plexus (shoulder and arm pain) and the sympathetic chain, causing Horner's syndrome (ptosis, miosis, reduced sweating). It is a classic presentation of lung cancer that needs urgent imaging.
答案: D · Chronic subdural haematoma
Older people have brain atrophy that stretches the bridging veins, and anticoagulants increase bleeding. A slow venous bleed can cause gradual confusion, headache or weakness over weeks. A CT scan is needed.
答案: A · The dawn phenomenon from early-morning hormones
In the dawn phenomenon, cortisol and growth hormone rise in the early morning and push glucose up without a preceding hypo. A night-time hypo followed by rebound hyperglycaemia would suggest the Somogyi effect. The prescriber can adjust the insulin regimen.
答案: C · Tell the surgeon, as the patient may not be able to consent now
Opioids and sedatives can impair understanding, so consent may not be valid. The surgeon is informed; consent is obtained when the patient has capacity, or other legal processes are followed in an emergency.
答案: C · Cardiac tamponade from a pericardial effusion
Malignant pericardial effusion can compress the heart, causing hypotension, raised JVP and muffled heart sounds. It is an emergency needing urgent echocardiography and drainage (pericardiocentesis).
答案: A · Eat dry crackers before rising and eat small meals
Eating something dry before rising, small frequent meals, and drinking fluids between rather than with meals reduce nausea. Fatty and spicy foods tend to worsen it.
答案: A · Alcohol
Fetal alcohol syndrome features include a smooth philtrum, thin upper lip, short palpebral fissures and microcephaly, often with growth and developmental problems.
答案: B · Holds the head steady when held upright, with little or no head lag
By about 4 months most infants have good head control with little head lag when pulled to sit. Sitting without support comes at about 6–8 months, pulling to stand at about 9 months and first words at about 12 months.
答案: A · Giving IV antibiotics as soon as possible, ideally within the first hour
In septic shock, IV antibiotics are given as soon as possible, ideally within an hour of recognition, after cultures are taken if this does not cause delay. Fluid resuscitation and close monitoring are started at the same time.
答案: A · Erotomanic
Erotomanic delusions are the false belief that another person, often of higher status, is in love with the patient. They can lead to stalking or unwanted contact.
答案: C · 起病迅速的反射亢进和阵挛提示 5-羟色胺综合征
两者都可引起发热、意识模糊和自主神经不稳。5-羟色胺综合征在数小时内起病,引起神经肌肉兴奋(反射亢进、阵挛)。抗精神病药恶性综合征在数日内发展,表现为“铅管样”强直和反射减弱。
答案: m = 2.95 kg
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 2.4 mg/h
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: D = 800 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: D = 365.3 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 50 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 10 gtt/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: D = 8 件/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 7.3 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 45 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 7 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 22:30 输完。
答案: M = 1
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 超重
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: Osm = 341 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 适当的代偿
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 正常窦性心律
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 2:1 房室传导阻滞(类型未定)
2:1 房室传导阻滞:每个 QRS 对应两个 P 波时,没有两个下传的 P 波连续出现,所以无法看出在未下传的 P 波之前,PR 间期是逐渐延长(I 型)还是保持恒定(II 型)。仅凭一条心电图条带,只能称为 2:1 房室传导阻滞;更长的条带或传导比例的改变才能决定类型。QRS 较窄时更可能是 I 型,QRS 增宽时更可能是 II 型,但两者都不能证明。
QRS 较窄时更可能是 I 型,QRS 增宽时更可能是 II 型,但只有更长的条带或传导比例的改变才能决定。
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