感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Why should a patient wash and dry their hands before a fingerprick glucose test?
Under the Mental Capacity Act 2005 (England and Wales), a patient with capacity makes a decision staff think is unwise. What follows?
When should blood specimen tubes be labeled?
入院时,患者的居家用药清单中有一种抗凝药,没有出现在新的住院医嘱中。护士应怎么做?
A nurse takes a telephone order from a provider. What must the nurse do?
在持续管饲过程中,一名患者突然开始咳嗽、呼吸急促,SpO₂ 下降。护士的首要行动是什么?
A patient's low potassium does not improve despite potassium replacement. Which other electrolyte should be checked?
一名急性消化道出血患者心率 120 次/分,血压 90/60 mmHg。呼救后,护理的首要任务是什么?
The heparin infusion rate was changed according to protocol. When is the aPTT usually rechecked?
A patient has marked generalized edema. Results show heavy proteinuria, serum albumin 1.8 g/dL (18 g/L) and total cholesterol 340 mg/dL (8.8 mmol/L). Which condition fits best?
Why is a progestogen added to oestrogen in hormone replacement therapy for a woman who still has her uterus?
A patient taking metoprolol is also started on verapamil. Which adverse effect is most likely?
A patient in cardiac rehabilitation asks how hard to exercise. Which simple guide is commonly taught?
A patient had 40 minutes of chest pain at rest. The ECG shows ST depression without ST elevation, and the troponin is rising. What is the diagnosis?
Which group of drugs is a well-known cause of SIADH and hyponatraemia, especially in older people?
The nurse has four patients. Which one needs to be seen first?
哪些床旁评估用于追踪腹水?
A worker has a hydrofluoric acid burn on the hand and severe pain. After irrigation with water, which specific treatment is commonly applied?
A baby has prolonged jaundice at 3 weeks with pale, chalky stools and dark urine. What should the nurse suspect?
A woman has a painful, red breast with a fluctuant swelling that has not improved after antibiotics. What should be suspected?
A 13-year-old has a concussion during a football match. What is the correct advice?
After successful treatment of anaphylaxis, why is the child observed for several hours?
对服用锂盐的患者,应给予哪些关于盐和液体的建议?
一名服用氯氮平已一年的患者戒烟了。为什么这很重要?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 105.9 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注的给药速率为 3 mcg/min。请把这个剂量速率D用 mg/h 表示。
一个药瓶中含有 500 mg 的粉末。标签上写着:加入 4.6 mL 注射用水,得到总容量 5 mL。医嘱为 100 mg。你应给予复溶后溶液的多少容量 V?
一名体重 12 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 15 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 200 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 10 滴/mL 的输液器在 8 小时内输入 1500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
医嘱要求在 12 小时内输入 1000 mL。3 小时后你发现袋中还剩 870 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 原来的泵速必须提高百分之多少 Δ?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 20 000 单位,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 15 units/kg/h,患者体重 83 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 83 kg 的患者的医嘱为nitroglycerin 10 mcg/min。输液袋中含 25 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 91 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 100 mL/h 输注。到 09:00 时已输入 700 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 18 次/分,SpO₂ 89%正在补充吸氧,血压 112/68 mmHg,脉搏 64 次/分,清醒,体温 37.2 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 拐杖、手杖或助行器; 静脉输液或封管: 是; 步态: 正常、卧床休息或轮椅; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。使用分界值 0–24 低,25–44 中度,45 或以上高,点击跌倒风险等级。
练习数值:Na⁺ 134 mmol/L,葡萄糖 29.1 mmol/L,尿素 19.1 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 35 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
测量这条 II 导联心电图上的QT 间期,以秒为单位。
一位处于监护中的患者被发现无反应、呼吸不正常,且摸不到颈动脉搏动。监护仪显示这种有组织的心律。这种情况叫什么?点击你的答案。
答案: A · Sugar on the skin can give a falsely high reading
Traces of food or drink on the finger can raise the reading. Washing with water and drying fully gives an accurate result; alcohol wipes can also affect some meters.
答案: B · An unwise decision alone does not mean the person lacks capacity
One of the Act's principles is that a person is not treated as lacking capacity just because they make an unwise decision. Staff can explain risks, but the decision is the patient's.
答案: C · At the bedside, in front of the patient, right after collection
Labeling tubes at the bedside, using two patient identifiers and in the patient’s presence, prevents wrong-patient specimens. Pre-labeled or later-labeled tubes are easily mixed up.
答案: C · 与开医嘱者澄清这一不一致
居家用药与住院医嘱之间无法解释的差异,可能是遗漏,也可能是有意更改。护士应询问开医嘱者,使决定明确并有记录。无意中遗漏抗凝药可能导致血栓。
答案: B · Write the order down and read it back to the provider to confirm it
For telephone and verbal orders, the nurse writes down the full order and reads it back so the provider can confirm it. This “read-back” prevents errors from mishearing.
答案: B · 停止管饲,让患者坐直并评估呼吸
管饲期间出现咳嗽、呼吸急促和血氧饱和度下降,提示误吸或管道移位。应立即停止管饲,让患者坐直,评估气道和呼吸,必要时吸痰和给氧,并通知医疗人员。在重新开始任何管饲之前先检查管道位置。
答案: C · Magnesium
Hypomagnesaemia increases renal potassium loss and makes hypokalaemia hard to correct. Magnesium must be replaced as well.
答案: D · 建立大口径静脉通路,准备补液或输血
心动过速和低血压提示大量失血。首先进行 ABCDE 评估、建立粗口径静脉通路、抽血(包括交叉配血)并进行复苏,随后行内镜检查。
答案: D · About 6 hours after the change
Most weight-based heparin protocols check the aPTT (or anti-Xa level) about 6 hours after starting or changing the rate, because it takes this long to reach a new steady state. Checking too early can lead to wrong adjustments.
答案: B · Nephrotic syndrome
Nephrotic syndrome is heavy proteinuria with low albumin, edema and high lipids. Low albumin reduces oncotic pressure, causing edema, and the liver increases lipoprotein production. There is also a higher risk of clots and infection.核对依据: Nephrotic syndrome · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: D · To protect against endometrial hyperplasia and cancer
Oestrogen alone causes endometrial proliferation and increases the risk of endometrial cancer. A progestogen protects the endometrium; women without a uterus can take oestrogen alone.
答案: A · Severe bradycardia and heart block
Beta blockers and non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers (verapamil, diltiazem) both slow heart rate and AV conduction. Together they can cause severe bradycardia, heart block and heart failure.
答案: D · Exercise so they are a little breathless but can still talk
Moderate-intensity exercise makes the patient slightly breathless but able to hold a conversation. Programmes start gently and progress. Patients stop and seek help if they get chest pain, severe breathlessness or dizziness.
答案: C · Non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction
An NSTEMI is an acute coronary syndrome with myocardial necrosis (rising troponin) but no persistent ST elevation; ST depression or T wave inversion may be seen. It is treated with antiplatelets, anticoagulation and angiography based on risk, rather than emergency reperfusion.
答案: C · SSRI antidepressants
SSRIs such as sertraline and citalopram can cause SIADH, particularly in older adults. Carbamazepine, some antipsychotics and some chemotherapy drugs are other causes. Sodium is checked if symptoms appear.
答案: B · A patient on insulin for DKA whose potassium is now 2.9 mmol/L
Insulin drives potassium into cells, and a potassium of 2.9 mmol/L during DKA treatment can cause life-threatening arrhythmias. The insulin rate and potassium replacement need urgent review under the protocol. The other patients are stable.
答案: A · 每日体重和腹围
每日体重和在同一标记水平测量的腹围可显示腹水是在增加还是减少。还应监测液体平衡、肾功能和电解质,尤其是在使用利尿剂时。
答案: A · Calcium gluconate gel
Hydrofluoric acid penetrates deeply and binds calcium and magnesium, causing severe pain and possible life-threatening hypocalcaemia. Calcium gluconate gel binds fluoride; serum calcium and heart rhythm are monitored in larger exposures.
答案: C · Biliary atresia
Pale stools and dark urine point to conjugated (obstructive) jaundice, such as biliary atresia. Early surgery gives the best outcome, so this needs urgent referral.
答案: C · A breast abscess needing drainage
A fluctuant, persistent painful mass despite antibiotics suggests a breast abscess. It needs ultrasound and drainage. Breastfeeding from the other breast can usually continue.
答案: B · No sport that day; return step by step once symptoms have gone
A child with suspected concussion should never return to play the same day. After a short period of relative rest, a stepwise return to school and then sport is followed, progressing only while symptom-free, with medical review for red flags.
答案: D · Symptoms can return even after recovery
Some children have a biphasic reaction, with symptoms returning hours after initial recovery without further exposure. They are observed for a period set by guidelines, discharged with an action plan and auto-injectors, and referred to an allergy service.
答案: A · 保持稳定、正常的盐摄入,并摄入足够的液体,尤其是在炎热天气或生病时
当钠或液体丢失时(出汗、呕吐、腹泻、低盐饮食),肾脏会保留更多的锂,血锂水平升高。稳定的盐和液体摄入可使水平保持稳定。
答案: C · 氯氮平水平可能升高,增加镇静和惊厥等副作用的风险
烟雾诱导代谢氯氮平的肝酶 CYP1A2。戒烟后,血药水平可大幅升高,因此应通知开医嘱者,并监测血药水平和副作用。
答案: T = 41.1 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: D = 0.18 mg/h
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 1 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: V = 4.5 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 31 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:31 滴/分。
答案: Δ = 16 %
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: R = 31.1 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 6 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: U = 1.26 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 3 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 3 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 12:00 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 5
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 中度风险
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: Osm = 316 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: PaCO₂ = 45.5 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: QT = 0.38 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
粗略的规则:在正常心率下,QT 应小于 R–R 间期的一半(此处 R–R = 0.60 s)。
答案: 无脉性电活动(PEA)
无脉性电活动(PEA):PEA 无法从心电图条带上看出。监护仪显示有组织的电活动(VF、VT 或心搏停止以外的心律),但患者摸不到脉搏,因此要通过检查患者来识别。在成人复苏指南中,PEA 和心搏停止是不可电击的心脏骤停心律:进行高质量心肺复苏,尽快使用肾上腺素,并寻找可逆原因(5H 和 5T,如低血容量、缺氧、张力性气胸和心脏压塞)。VF 和无脉性 VT 是可电击心律。
PEA 在床旁识别,绝不能仅凭心电图条带。这是考试练习,不是临床指南。
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