感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
How should a rectal suppository be inserted?
Three days after abdominal surgery, a patient coughs and the wound opens with bowel visible. What should the nurse do first?
Why are some patients screened with a nasal swab for MRSA on admission?
Which patient with a suspected infection meets the qSOFA criteria that signal a higher risk of a poor outcome?
A drowsy patient who has just returned from surgery starts to vomit. What should the nurse do first?
A patient with a head injury has a pupil on one side that is now large and does not react to light. What should the nurse do?
急性缺血性卒中的静脉溶栓一般在什么时间窗内进行?
A patient with known prostate cancer reports new back pain, leg weakness and difficulty passing urine. What should be suspected?
Which IV fluid can be given through the same line as a red cell transfusion?
Ten days after chemotherapy, a patient has a platelet count of 9 × 10³/µL and reports a sudden severe headache and blurred vision. What is the priority?
A child is starting methylphenidate for ADHD. Which advice is appropriate?
A patient on digoxin is started on amiodarone. What change should the nurse expect?
How do clopidogrel and ticagrelor work?
A patient with pneumonia has a temperature of 39 °C, pain and a sinus tachycardia of 122/min. BP is normal. What is the best way to manage the heart rate?
A patient with untreated hyperthyroidism is losing weight. Which diet is most appropriate until the condition is controlled?
一名重度颅脑损伤患者不睁眼,对疼痛的反应是双臂伸直并向内旋转、双腿伸直。这提示什么?
患者在全身麻醉后到达复苏室时,首要任务是什么?
A bag of parenteral nutrition runs out and the next one will not arrive for several hours. Which risk should the nurse anticipate?
宫底松软,高于脐水平,并偏向右侧。最可能的原因是什么?
A labouring woman refuses a recommended caesarean for fetal distress after a full explanation. She has decision-making capacity. What should the nurse do?
Which finding at a 2-year check most needs a speech and language referral?
A child on a morphine infusion is very hard to wake, with a respiratory rate of 8 per minute and pinpoint pupils. What should the nurse do first?
A patient asks the nurse for her home phone number so they can keep in touch after discharge. What is the best response?
A child has been admitted several times with unexplained fevers that only happen when her mother is present. Staff see the mother tampering with the child's IV line. What is the priority action?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次体重换算得到 105.6734 kg。 本练习的规则是:体重取到最接近的十分之一千克。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注的给药速率为 5 mg/h。请把这个剂量速率D用 mcg/min 表示。取到一位小数。
一支肾上腺素安瓿标示为 1:1000(1 mg/mL)。医嘱为 0.3 mg 肌内注射(IM),用于严重过敏反应。你应抽取多少体积 V?
处方为 4650 单位的药物,药液规格为 5000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 5 小时内输入 1000 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。
一袋中含有 2 g 药物,溶于 500 mL。医嘱为每分钟 2 mg。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋输液的 100 mL 中含普通胰岛素 100 单位。医嘱为 1 unit/h。求泵速 R(mL/h)。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dopamine 800 mg、容量 500 mL 的输液以 19 mL/h 输注。患者体重 59 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 06:45 开始用输液泵以 80 mL/h 输注。到 13:15 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 是; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 无、卧床休息或由护士协助; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 虚弱; 精神状态: 高估或忘记自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 9 次/分,SpO₂ 89%吸室内空气,血压 142/86 mmHg,脉搏 88 次/分,清醒,体温 36.3 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习血气显示 PaCO₂ 51 mmHg (6.8 kPa)。利用规则:在慢性呼吸性酸中毒中,PaCO₂ 每比 40 高出 10 mmHg,HCO₃⁻ 升高 3.5 mmol/L,以HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L 为起点,求预期HCO₃⁻。
在海平面,某练习血气取自吸入 40% 氧气时,显示 PaO₂ 82 mmHg (10.9 kPa),PaCO₂ 49 mmHg (6.5 kPa)。用 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 求A–a 梯度。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Bazett 公式 QTc = QT/√RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
答案: A · Past the internal sphincter, against the rectal wall
The suppository is pushed past the internal anal sphincter and placed against the rectal wall, usually with the patient lying on the left side. Placing it in stool stops absorption.
答案: B · Cover it with sterile saline-soaked dressings and call for urgent help
Evisceration is a surgical emergency. The nurse stays with the patient, covers the bowel with sterile moist dressings, positions them to reduce tension on the wound and calls for urgent surgical review.
答案: A · To find carriers so precautions or decolonization can be used
Screening identifies people who are colonized with MRSA, often in the nose. Precautions and, in some cases, decolonization reduce spread and the risk of the patient’s own infection after surgery.
答案: A · Respiratory rate 24/min, new confusion, systolic BP 95 mmHg
qSOFA scores one point each for a respiratory rate of 22/min or more, altered mental status and a systolic BP of 100 mmHg or less. Two or more points mean higher risk, so the first patient needs urgent escalation.
答案: A · Turn the patient onto their side
A drowsy patient who vomits can aspirate. Turning them to the side lets vomit drain from the mouth; suction and a prescribed antiemetic follow.
答案: B · Report it at once, as it may mean the brain is being compressed
A newly fixed, dilated pupil suggests pressure on the third cranial nerve from rising intracranial pressure or a bleed. It is a neurological emergency that needs immediate escalation.
答案: C · 症状出现后 4.5 小时内
在影像检查排除出血后,阿替普酶溶栓一般在发病 4.5 小时内进行。因此,了解患者最后一次被看到状况良好的时间至关重要。
答案: D · Metastatic spinal cord compression
Back pain with neurological symptoms in a patient with cancer suggests metastatic spinal cord compression. It is an oncological emergency needing urgent MRI and treatment to preserve function.
答案: A · 0.9% sodium chloride
Only 0.9% sodium chloride is used with red cells. Dextrose solutions can cause hemolysis, and lactated Ringer's contains calcium, which can cause clotting in the citrated blood. Drugs are never added to blood products.
答案: A · Assess neurological status and report it at once as possible brain bleeding
Platelet counts usually reach their lowest point (nadir) about 7–14 days after chemotherapy. With a count below 10 × 10³/µL, a sudden severe headache or visual change may signal intracranial bleeding, which is an emergency. The nurse assesses neurological status and reports it immediately.核对依据: Bleeding and Bruising (Thrombocytopenia) and Cancer Treatment · National Cancer Institute (NIH) (2022); Pancytopenia · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2023)
答案: C · Give doses early in the day and monitor appetite and growth
Stimulants can cause insomnia, so doses are given in the morning and early afternoon. Reduced appetite can slow growth, so height and weight are tracked.
答案: C · Digoxin levels rise, so the digoxin dose is often reduced
Amiodarone inhibits P-glycoprotein and reduces digoxin clearance, so digoxin levels rise. The digoxin dose is often reduced, and the patient is monitored for bradycardia and toxicity; amiodarone also raises warfarin levels.
答案: C · They block the platelet ADP (P2Y12) receptor
Clopidogrel, prasugrel and ticagrelor block the P2Y12 ADP receptor on platelets, reducing aggregation. With aspirin, they form dual antiplatelet therapy after acute coronary syndromes and stents. Warfarin inhibits vitamin K-dependent factors; dabigatran inhibits thrombin.
答案: B · Treat the fever, pain and possible dehydration, then reassess
Sinus tachycardia is usually a physiological response to fever, pain, hypovolaemia, anxiety, hypoxia or sepsis. Treating the cause (antipyretics, analgesia, fluids, oxygen if needed) is appropriate, while watching for sepsis. Rate-slowing drugs can be harmful by masking compensation.
答案: C · A high-calorie diet with enough protein
Excess thyroid hormone raises metabolism, so patients need more calories and protein to prevent weight loss. Caffeine is limited because it worsens palpitations, tremor and anxiety.
答案: D · 伸展性(去大脑)姿势:严重的脑干损伤
对疼痛出现异常伸展(GCS 运动评分 2)提示脑干或其附近的严重损伤,预后比异常屈曲(去皮质姿势,运动评分 3)更差。任何新出现的异常姿势都需要立即上报。
答案: B · 气道和呼吸
在复苏室,残余的麻醉药、阿片类药物和肌松药可引起气道梗阻和呼吸抑制。首先评估气道和呼吸,然后是循环、意识、疼痛、体温和伤口。
答案: A · Rebound hypoglycaemia
Stopping PN suddenly can cause hypoglycaemia because insulin levels stay high for a while. Glucose is monitored, and a glucose infusion may be given according to local policy.
答案: A · 膀胱充盈
膀胱充盈会把子宫抬高并推向一侧(通常是右侧),并使其不能良好收缩。协助产妇排空膀胱后,宫底通常会回到中线并变硬。
答案: A · Respect her decision, document it and inform the team
A woman with capacity has the right to refuse treatment, even if this may harm the fetus. The nurse ensures she has understood, documents the discussion, continues care and informs the team.
答案: C · The child is not yet combining any two words
By 2 years most children use at least about 50 words and combine two words. Not combining words at 2 years needs assessment, including a hearing test. Saying "no" and parallel play are normal toddler behaviour.
答案: A · Stop the infusion, support breathing and give naloxone as per protocol
Deep sedation, slow breathing and pinpoint pupils indicate opioid toxicity. The opioid is stopped, the airway and breathing supported with oxygen or bag-mask ventilation if needed, naloxone given as prescribed and help called.
答案: B · "I can't give you my number, because our relationship is a professional one. Let's talk about support you can contact after discharge."
Personal contact outside the therapeutic relationship crosses a professional boundary. The nurse explains the boundary kindly and redirects to appropriate after-discharge support.
答案: D · Ensure the child's safety and follow child protection procedures
This suggests factitious disorder imposed on another, which is a form of child abuse. The nurse protects the child and reports through safeguarding procedures. Confronting the parent alone can increase the risk to the child.
答案: x = 105.7 kg
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: D = 83.3 mcg/min
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 0.3 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
美国的标签现在标示 mg/mL(1 mg/mL = 1:1000;0.1 mg/mL = 1:10 000)。切勿静脉推注 1 mg/mL 的肾上腺素。
答案: V = 0.93 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 50 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 30 mL/h
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 1 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 8.6 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 520 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: V = 480 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: MFS = 50
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
答案: HCO₃⁻ = 27.85 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: A–a 梯度 = 141.9 mmHg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: QTc = 0.5 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
超过男性(约 0.45 s)和女性(约 0.46 s)的通常上限:延长。(500 ms)
答案: 室性自搏心律
更多室性心律:尖端扭转型室性心动过速是一种多形性室性心动过速,通常为 150–250 次/分钟,其增宽的波群高度不断变化并围绕基线扭转,先向上几个心搏,再向下。教科书将其与 QT 间期延长联系起来,复苏指南中针对它推荐的药物是硫酸镁。室性自搏心律是一种心室逸搏心律:规则、QRS 增宽(0.12 s 或以上)、无 P 波,频率 20–40 次/分钟(加速性室性自搏心律为 40–100 次/分钟)。单形性室速的增宽波群完全相同,频率超过 100 次/分钟。室颤则是混乱的,没有任何重复的波群。
室性自搏心律是一种逸搏心律:由于上方的起搏点失灵,心室接管了节律。
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