感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
一名意识清醒的糖尿病患者血糖低,且能安全吞咽。第一步是什么?
Where must the final identity check before a blood transfusion take place?
A patient has received oral radioactive iodine therapy. Which precaution is usually taken?
A patient’s allergy band says “penicillin”, and an order has been written for amoxicillin. What should the nurse do?
A patient taking clozapine reports a sore throat and fever. What is the priority action?
Two days after starting haloperidol, a patient suddenly develops painful neck twisting and the eyes roll upwards. What should the nurse anticipate?
一名心力衰竭患者两天内体重增加 2 kg。这最可能说明什么?
An adult with capacity refuses a blood transfusion for religious reasons, even though it may save their life. What should the nurse do?
When should the nurse check the glucose before giving a mealtime dose of rapid-acting insulin (such as lispro)?
一名静脉输注胰岛素的患者血糖为 65 mg/dL(3.6 mmol/L)。最好的措施是什么?
Benzathine benzylpenicillin (penicillin G benzathine) is ordered. Which route is correct?
A patient on warfarin also takes ginkgo and high-dose garlic supplements and is having minor surgery next week. What should the nurse do?
A patient takes both digoxin and furosemide. Why does the nurse watch the potassium level closely?
After an anaphylactic reaction to a bee sting that responded to adrenaline (epinephrine), a patient asks to go home immediately. Which advice is most appropriate?
A patient with CKD is booked for a CT scan with iodinated contrast. Which measure helps protect the kidneys?
A patient with trigeminal neuralgia has lost weight and has poor oral hygiene. Which plan is most appropriate?
Why is a pregnancy test often done before surgery in women who could be pregnant?
腹部手术后第 6 天,一名患者说咳嗽时有东西“裂开了”,并且伤口处可见肠管。护士应立即做什么?
缩写 HELLP 代表什么?
After treatment for a molar pregnancy, what is the most important teaching point?
A child with suspected appendicitis is waiting for surgery. Which action must the nurse avoid?
一名患哮吼的幼儿现在静息时出现喘鸣,躁动不安,并有明显的胸壁凹陷。优先事项是什么?
In a therapy group, one member talks constantly and interrupts others. What should the group leader do?
During a panic attack, a patient breathes very fast and complains of light-headedness and tingling in her fingers and around her mouth. What should the nurse do?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次体重换算得到 136.8545 kg。 本练习的规则是:体重取到最接近的十分之一千克。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 血红蛋白结果为 13.5 g/dL。请用 g/L 表示Hb。
一名体重 32 kg 的儿童按 5 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 50 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一名患者身高 175 cm,体重 55 kg。医嘱为 250 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
医嘱要求以 120 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
50 mg 药物溶于 500 mL 的输液以 30 mL/h 运行。患者每分钟接受多少微克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 25 000 单位,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 18 units/kg/h,患者体重 59 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dopamine 800 mg、容量 500 mL 的输液以 32 mL/h 输注。患者体重 52 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 125 mL/h 输注。到 14:00 时已输入 750 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的脉搏为 111 次/分,血压为 82/53 mmHg。求休克指数SI = HR/SBP。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 12 次/分,SpO₂ 96%吸室内空气,血压 222/134 mmHg,脉搏 64 次/分,清醒,体温 38.0 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 18 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
某练习血气显示 pH 7.32,PaCO₂ 28 mmHg (3.7 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 14 mmol/L,Na⁺ 144,Cl⁻ 102 mmol/L。利用阴离子间隙和 Δ 比值,点选最合适的解读。
这条 II 导联心电图条带显示窦性心律伴一次停顿。测量 停顿,即跨越停顿的 R–R 间期,单位为秒。
请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。仅凭这一条心电图条带,你能为哪种解读辩护?点击你的答案。
答案: C · 口服快速起效的碳水化合物,并复测血糖
对能吞咽的清醒患者,给予葡萄糖片或果汁等快速起效的葡萄糖,短时间后复测血糖。血糖回升后,再给予作用较持久的碳水化合物。
答案: C · At the bedside, with the patient and their wristband
The final check matches the patient's identity, by asking and from the wristband, with the blood bag and prescription at the bedside. Most wrong-blood events come from checks done away from the patient.
答案: A · Limit time close to the patient and handle body fluids per radiation policy
Radioactive iodine is excreted in urine, sweat and saliva, so the patient is usually in a private room with their own bathroom. Staff limit time near them, use distance and follow policy for body fluids and waste.
答案: C · Hold the drug and contact the prescriber
Amoxicillin is a penicillin, so it could cause a serious allergic reaction. The nurse holds the drug, clarifies the allergy and contacts the prescriber for a safe alternative.
答案: B · Hold the dose and report so the white cell count can be checked
Clozapine can cause agranulocytosis. A sore throat or fever may be the first sign of infection, so the nurse reports it and the neutrophil count is checked before more doses are given.
答案: C · An anticholinergic drug, such as benztropine or procyclidine, as prescribed
Acute dystonia is an early extrapyramidal effect of antipsychotics. It responds quickly to an anticholinergic drug; it can be frightening, and laryngeal spasm can threaten the airway.
答案: A · 液体潴留
心衰患者体重骤增通常意味着液体超负荷。每天称重是监测液体平衡最简单的方法。
答案: A · Respect the refusal, check it is informed and document it, and inform the team
An adult with capacity has the right to refuse treatment, even life-saving treatment. The team should make sure the patient understands the consequences, discuss alternatives such as cell salvage and record the decision.
答案: D · Just before the meal, giving insulin when the food is ready
Rapid-acting insulin starts working within about 15 minutes, so glucose is checked before the meal and the insulin is given when the meal is available, usually within 15 minutes of eating. Giving it without food can cause hypoglycemia.
答案: D · 遵循低血糖方案并通知医疗人员
使用胰岛素输注时血糖低于 70 mg/dL 即为低血糖。护士应遵循医院的方案,通常是停用或减少胰岛素并给予葡萄糖,频繁复查并通知医疗人员。核对依据: Low blood sugar · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: B · Deep intramuscular only
Benzathine penicillin is a depot suspension given deep IM. Accidental intravenous injection can cause cardiorespiratory arrest and death.
答案: A · Tell the surgical team, as the supplements can increase bleeding
Ginkgo and garlic may impair platelet function and add to warfarin's bleeding risk. The team needs a full list of supplements so it can plan, and the patient should not change warfarin without advice.
答案: A · Low potassium increases the risk of digoxin toxicity
Digoxin binds to the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase pump at the site potassium normally uses. When potassium is low, more digoxin binds, so toxicity and arrhythmias become more likely. Loop diuretics commonly cause hypokalaemia, so the combination needs monitoring.
答案: A · Stay for observation, then go home with an adrenaline auto-injector and teaching
Biphasic reactions can occur hours after the first reaction resolves, so patients are observed for a period determined by severity and local guidance. Before discharge they receive adrenaline auto-injectors with training, a written plan and referral to an allergy service.
答案: B · Good hydration around the scan, often with IV fluids
Iodinated contrast can contribute to AKI in at-risk patients. Good hydration, using the lowest dose needed, avoiding nephrotoxic drugs and checking kidney function afterwards help reduce the risk.
答案: A · Offer soft, lukewarm food and advise chewing on the unaffected side
Patients may avoid eating and brushing their teeth because these trigger attacks. Soft, lukewarm food, chewing on the unaffected side, gentle oral care and effective drug treatment help maintain nutrition and hygiene.
答案: C · Anaesthesia, drugs and some tests may harm a fetus
Unknown pregnancy can change the decision to operate, the timing, and the choice of drugs and X-rays. Testing is offered with consent, according to local policy.
答案: B · 用生理盐水浸湿的无菌敷料覆盖,屈膝,呼叫外科医生
内脏脱出是外科急症。用无菌、生理盐水浸湿的敷料覆盖脏器,让患者取低半卧位并屈膝以减少张力,保持禁食,监测休克并呼叫外科医生。绝不能试图将脏器还纳。
答案: B · 溶血、肝酶升高、血小板减少
HELLP 综合征是子痫前期的严重并发症。典型表现为右上腹或上腹痛、恶心和不适,血压不一定很高。
答案: D · Attend serial hCG checks and use reliable contraception during follow-up
hCG is followed until it is undetectable because persistent trophoblastic disease or choriocarcinoma can develop. A new pregnancy would raise hCG and hide this, so reliable contraception is advised during follow-up.
答案: C · Putting a heat pad on the abdomen
Heat on the abdomen and laxatives or enemas are avoided in suspected appendicitis because they can increase the risk of perforation. Nil by mouth, IV fluids, analgesia and close monitoring are appropriate.
答案: C · 紧急寻求医疗帮助;这是可能需要雾化肾上腺素的重度哮吼
静息时喘鸣、躁动和凹陷提示严重的上气道梗阻。让孩子在父母陪伴下保持平静,必要时给氧,并紧急求助;按医嘱给予雾化肾上腺素和类固醇。
答案: B · Acknowledge the member's contribution and invite others to share their views
The leader manages a monopolising member by acknowledging her and redirecting to others, and may discuss it privately. This keeps the group safe and gives everyone a chance to take part.
答案: C · Stay with her and coach her to breathe slowly and steadily
Hyperventilation causes respiratory alkalosis, which leads to tingling and dizziness. Calm coaching of slow breathing restores carbon dioxide levels. Breathing into a paper bag is not recommended, because it can cause hypoxia and mask a medical cause.
答案: x = 136.9 kg
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: Hb = 135 g/L
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 3.2 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: D = 408.8 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 120 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
使用微滴输液器(60 gtt/mL)时,gtt/min 等于 mL/h。
答案: D = 50 mcg/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 21.2 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 16.4 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 1340 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 2 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 2 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 16:00 输完。
答案: SI = 1.35
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
1 或更高:在这个练习病例中是休克的警示信号。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
答案: PaCO₂ = 35 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 单纯高间隙酸中毒
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 停顿 = 1.96 s
窄 QRS 心动过速与停顿:室上性心动过速(SVT)是规则的心动过速,约 150–250 次/分钟,QRS 波群较窄;P 波通常看不到,因为它们隐藏在 QRS 波群或 T 波中。成人静息时的窦性心动过速通常低于约 150 次/分钟,且每个 QRS 前都有可见的 P 波;伴 2:1 传导的心房扑动常在约 150 次/分钟,并显示锯齿波。窦性停搏是指窦房结暂时停止发放冲动:出现既无 P 波也无 QRS 的停顿,其长度不是 P–P 周期的整数倍(恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞)。
停顿中没有出现 P 波,且停顿不是 P–P 周期的整数倍:窦性停搏。恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞。
答案: 2:1 房室传导阻滞(类型未定)
2:1 房室传导阻滞:每个 QRS 对应两个 P 波时,没有两个下传的 P 波连续出现,所以无法看出在未下传的 P 波之前,PR 间期是逐渐延长(I 型)还是保持恒定(II 型)。仅凭一条心电图条带,只能称为 2:1 房室传导阻滞;更长的条带或传导比例的改变才能决定类型。QRS 较窄时更可能是 I 型,QRS 增宽时更可能是 II 型,但两者都不能证明。
QRS 较窄时更可能是 I 型,QRS 增宽时更可能是 II 型,但只有更长的条带或传导比例的改变才能决定。
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