感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A nurse posts about an "interesting patient" on social media without naming them. Why is this a problem?
A patient taking furosemide has a serum potassium of 3.0 mmol/L (3.0 mEq/L). Why is this important?
A patient with a respiratory infection has a raised procalcitonin level. What does this most suggest?
一名活动性肺结核患者要求访客进来探视。最佳回应是什么?
交班后,护士应首先看哪位患者?
A medical-unit nurse is floated to intensive care and given a patient on a ventilator, which the nurse has never managed. What is the best response?
一个新做的结肠造口在术后第二天呈暗紫色至黑色。这表示什么?
A patient has a high fever with rigors, jaundice and right upper quadrant pain. Which condition is most likely?
哪种治疗通过使钾进入细胞内来降低血清钾?
一名钠为 132 mEq/L、血糖为 600 mg/dL(33.3 mmol/L)的患者入院。为什么要谨慎解读钠的数值?
How should the nurse straighten the ear canal to give ear drops to a 2-year-old child?
In myxoedema coma, why is hydrocortisone often given before or with thyroid hormone?
A patient has chest pain at rest in the early morning with brief ST elevation that resolves. Coronary arteries are later found to be clear. Which condition is most likely?
A 70-year-old man has a small abdominal aortic aneurysm found on screening and is placed under surveillance. Which advice is most important?
An 80-year-old with angina is diagnosed with hypothyroidism. How is levothyroxine usually started?
A patient arrives five hours after the onset of a stroke. A CT angiogram shows a blockage of a large artery in the brain. What is the most appropriate next step?
Which advice helps a patient with haemorrhoids?
一名护士把少量细胞毒性药物洒在地板上。正确的处理方法是什么?
A woman 2 hours after birth has a temperature of 37.8 °C (100.0 °F), a firm fundus and normal lochia. What is the most likely cause?
A woman in her first antenatal visit discloses that her partner hits her. What is the most appropriate nursing action?
一名 5 周龄的婴儿每次喂奶后都出现用力的(喷射性)呕吐,吐后似乎仍很饿。可能的原因是什么?
一名 15 岁女孩要求护士对她的父母保密她的性活动。没有虐待的迹象,也没有严重伤害的风险。最恰当的回应是什么?
A man with an intellectual disability is becoming irritable. Staff say it is "just his learning disability". What is this an example of?
A patient taking venlafaxine has started a second serotonergic medicine. She is restless, sweating, has a fast pulse and twitching muscles. What should the nurse do first?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 101.8 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液½ tsp,每 6 小时一次,共 10 天。按1 tsp = 5 mL,整个疗程需要多少 mLV?
50 mL 的 0.5%(w/v)溶液中含有多少毫克药物 m?
一名患者身高 150 cm,体重 57 kg。医嘱为 100 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
用滴系数为 60 滴/mL 的输液器在 12 小时内输入 250 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋液体在 50 mL 中含药 200 mg,以 20 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 53 kg 的患者推注肝素 70 units/kg。药瓶规格为 5 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dobutamine 500 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 4 mL/h 输注。患者体重 66 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 09:15 开始用输液泵以 100 mL/h 输注。到 13:15 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 20 次/分,SpO₂ 94%正在补充吸氧,血压 118/70 mmHg,脉搏 104 次/分,清醒,体温 36.6 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名练习用新生儿出生后 1 分钟时:全身皮肤青紫或苍白,无心跳,刺激后无反应,四肢松软,没有肌张力,无呼吸。 为 Apgar 评分并点击该评分的解读。
某练习血气显示 PaCO₂ 68 mmHg (9.1 kPa)。利用规则:在慢性呼吸性酸中毒中,PaCO₂ 每比 40 高出 10 mmHg,HCO₃⁻ 升高 3.5 mmol/L,以HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L 为起点,求预期HCO₃⁻。
某练习血气显示 pH 7.30,PaCO₂ 25 mmHg (3.3 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 12 mmol/L,Na⁺ 140,Cl⁻ 98 mmol/L。利用阴离子间隙和 Δ 比值,点选最合适的解读。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这条 II 导联心电图显示房室传导阻滞,所以心房和心室以不同的频率搏动。测量 P–P 间期,求出心房率(单位:次/分,1500 法,取整数)。
答案: D · The patient may still be identifiable, which breaches confidentiality
Details such as the ward, the condition or the date can reveal who a patient is. Professional codes forbid sharing patient information on social media, even without names.
答案: A · Loop diuretics cause potassium loss, and low levels can cause arrhythmias
Furosemide increases potassium loss in the urine. Hypokalaemia causes muscle weakness and cardiac arrhythmias, so the result is reported and replacement considered.
答案: A · A bacterial rather than a viral infection
Procalcitonin rises mainly in bacterial infections and much less in viral ones. It is used with clinical judgement to help decide when antibiotics are needed or can be stopped.
答案: D · 解释风险,限制探视,并教访客使用所提供的防护
应依据规定限制探视,辅以教育和防护,患者仍留在关闭的负压病房中。在敞开的门口探视会破坏负压。
答案: A · 一名新打石膏的患者,说足部发麻,脚趾发凉
石膏下麻木和脚趾发凉提示循环受损,可能是骨筋膜室综合征,数小时内即可造成永久性损害。其他发现是预期的或常规的。
答案: D · Tell the charge nurse about the gap, accept tasks within competence and ask for support
A nurse should clearly state the limits of their competence and ask for an assignment or support that keeps patients safe. Leaving without handover would be patient abandonment.
答案: D · 造口可能缺血,需要紧急评估
造口颜色暗淡或发黑提示血供不足、可能坏死,必须立即报告外科团队。
答案: D · Ascending cholangitis
Fever, jaundice and right upper quadrant pain (Charcot's triad) suggest infection of an obstructed bile duct. It can rapidly cause sepsis and needs antibiotics and biliary drainage.
答案: C · 静脉注射普通胰岛素并配合葡萄糖
胰岛素激活钠–钾泵,使钾进入细胞内;同时给予葡萄糖以预防低血糖。葡萄糖酸钙保护心脏,但不降低钾水平。核对依据: High potassium level · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: D · 高血糖把水吸入血液,稀释了钠
高血糖把水从细胞吸入血液,使测得的钠降低。随着血糖得到治疗,钠通常会升高。常用的校正方法是,血糖每高于 100 mg/dL 的 100 mg/dL,增加约 1.6–2.4 mEq/L 的钠。核对依据: Sodium blood test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: C · Pull the pinna down and back
In children under about 3 years, the pinna is pulled down and back; in adults it is pulled up and back. The child then lies with the treated ear up for a few minutes.
答案: C · Thyroid hormone can trigger adrenal crisis if cortisol is also low
Restoring thyroid hormone increases metabolic rate and cortisol clearance. If adrenal reserve is also low, this can precipitate adrenal crisis, so steroid cover is given until adrenal insufficiency is excluded.
答案: B · Vasospastic (Prinzmetal) angina
Vasospastic angina is caused by temporary coronary artery spasm, often at rest or at night, with transient ST elevation. It responds to calcium channel blockers and nitrates. Triggers include smoking, cold and cocaine.
答案: A · Stop smoking, control BP and seek help at once for sudden back pain
Small aneurysms are usually monitored with regular ultrasound, with repair considered when they reach a threshold size or grow fast. Stopping smoking slows growth, and BP and cardiovascular risk are managed. Sudden abdominal or back pain may mean rupture and needs emergency care.
答案: C · At a low dose, increased slowly
Levothyroxine raises metabolic rate and myocardial oxygen demand. In older people and those with heart disease, a low starting dose that is increased gradually reduces the risk of angina and arrhythmias.
答案: B · Urgent referral for assessment for mechanical thrombectomy
IV thrombolysis is usually given within 4.5 hours of onset. Mechanical thrombectomy for a large vessel occlusion can be done later, typically up to 6 hours and in selected patients up to 24 hours, based on imaging. Time still matters, so referral is urgent.
答案: A · Eat more fibre, drink enough fluid and avoid straining
Soft stools reduce straining and pressure on the anal cushions. Long sitting on the toilet and constipating drugs such as codeine should be avoided.
答案: D · 使用溢出处理包,穿戴个人防护装备,清理后作为细胞毒性废物装袋并上报
细胞毒性药物溢出应使用专用的溢出处理包处理,包括手套、隔离衣、护目装备,必要时戴口罩。应控制溢出范围、吸收并由外向内清理,将废物放入有标签的细胞毒性废物袋,并上报事件。
答案: A · Dehydration after labour
A slight rise in temperature in the first 24 hours is often due to dehydration and the effort of labour. Fluids are encouraged and temperature rechecked. A fever of 38 °C (100.4 °F) or more, especially after 24 hours, suggests infection.
答案: A · Talk with her alone, assess her safety and offer support
Intimate partner violence often begins or worsens in pregnancy. The nurse should talk to her alone, assess safety, document carefully and offer support and local resources, without confronting the partner.
答案: C · 幽门狭窄
幽门狭窄通常在 2–8 周时出现,表现为喷射性、非胆汁性呕吐,呕吐后饥饿、体重减轻,有时可触及橄榄形肿块。
答案: B · 尊重她的保密要求,提供信息,并说明在什么情况下必须分享信息
青少年在法律范围内有权获得保密的医疗服务。护士应说明,如果存在严重伤害的风险,例如虐待或剥削,信息可能会被分享,但不应承诺绝对保密。
答案: B · Diagnostic overshadowing
Diagnostic overshadowing happens when new symptoms are attributed to a known disability or mental illness, so a physical or other cause is missed. It contributes to poorer health outcomes.
答案: B · Hold the serotonergic medicines and inform the prescriber urgently
These signs suggest serotonin syndrome. The first steps are to stop the serotonergic drugs and get urgent medical review; supportive care and monitoring follow, and severe cases need intensive care.
答案: T = 38.8 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 100 mL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: m = 250 mg
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: D = 154.1 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 21 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:21 滴/分。
答案: D = 80 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: V = 0.74 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 2 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 940 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 600 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: NEWS2 = 4
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 低
Apgar 评分:五项体征,每项评 0、1 或 2 分,在出生后 1 分钟和 5 分钟检查。外观(肤色):青紫或苍白 0 分,躯干粉红、四肢青紫 1 分,全身粉红 2 分。脉搏:无 0 分,低于 100 次/分 1 分,100 次/分或以上 2 分。反射(反射应激性):无 0 分,做鬼脸 1 分,哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏 2 分。肌张力(活动):松软 0 分,略有屈曲 1 分,活动活跃 2 分。呼吸:无 0 分,缓慢或不规则、哭声微弱 1 分,良好、哭声响亮 2 分。总分 7–10 为令人放心,4–6 为中度异常,0–3 为低。
答案: HCO₃⁻ = 33.8 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 单纯高间隙酸中毒
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 室性二联律
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 心房率 = 75 bpm
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
二度 II 型:每 3 个 QRS 波群对应 4 个 P 波,PR 恒定。
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