感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
When are non-sterile gloves needed?
Eight hours after surgery a patient has not passed urine and has lower abdominal discomfort with a swelling above the pubic bone. What should the nurse do?
Why does a nurse wear chemotherapy-tested gloves and a gown when emptying the urinal of a patient who recently had chemotherapy?
一名护士到达走廊火灾现场,火势正在蔓延,附近房间里有患者。拉响警报后,护士应怎么做?
护士可以放心最后去看哪位患者?
Which patient is the best choice for the room closest to the nurses’ station?
一名 MRSA 定植患者入院。哪种防护措施是恰当的?
An older patient's blood pressure is 142/80 mmHg lying and 116/72 mmHg after standing for three minutes, and they feel dizzy. What does this show?
Which instruction is correct for a patient starting oral iron tablets?
An RN cares for a patient on a 24-hour urine collection. Which task can be delegated to unlicensed assistive personnel (UAP), such as a nursing or healthcare assistant?
哪类利尿剂作用于髓袢升支粗段?
An older patient with coronary artery disease is starting levothyroxine for hypothyroidism. Why is a low starting dose used?
Which skin changes around the ankles are typical of chronic venous insufficiency?
一名心力衰竭患者三天内体重增加 2.5 kg,双肺底出现新的湿啰音,现在需要垫四个枕头睡觉。血压 138/84 mmHg,未吸氧时 SpO₂ 93%。优先处理是什么?
A patient with a suspected basal skull fracture needs a gastric tube. Which route is preferred?
全甲状腺切除术后,一名患者焦虑,出现喘鸣和颈部紧张性肿胀。护士首先应做什么?
Which statement about pain in older adults is correct?
腹部手术后第 6 天,一名患者说咳嗽时有东西“裂开了”,并且伤口处可见肠管。护士应立即做什么?
In fetal circulation, what is the function of the foramen ovale?
A newborn in the first hours sneezes, has a high-pitched cry, tremors and loose stools. The mother took opioids throughout pregnancy. Which intervention is most appropriate first?
Which activity best supports a 9-year-old during a long hospital stay?
A toddler weighed 10 kg before 2 days of diarrhoea and now weighs 9.5 kg. How much has he lost?
A patient with dependent personality disorder asks the nurse to choose her clothes and meals every day. What is an appropriate nursing goal?
During a ward community meeting, several patients complain that the ward is too noisy at night. What reflects a therapeutic milieu?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 10:05 PM。哪个条目是 24 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 血糖结果为 94 mg/dL。按葡萄糖 1 mmol/L = 18 mg/dL,求以 mmol/L 表示的c。取到一位小数。
一名体重 24 kg 的儿童按 4 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 10 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
处方为 7000 单位的药物,药液规格为 10000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求以 80 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一袋液体在 500 mL 中含药 200 mg,以 15 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 85 kg 的患者推注肝素 60 units/kg。药瓶规格为 5 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 84 kg 的患者的医嘱为norepinephrine 12 mcg/min。输液袋中含 8 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 15:00 开始以 100 mL/h 输注。4 小时后速率改为 125 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 完全受限; 潮湿程度: 非常潮湿; 活动: 局限于椅子; 活动能力: 非常受限; 营养: 非常差; 摩擦力和剪切力: 潜在问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 团队的目标是平均动脉压至少为 65 mmHg。一位患者的收缩压为 95 mmHg。使用 MAP = (SBP + 2·DBP)/3,仍能使 MAP 达到 65 mmHg 的最低舒张压DBP是多少?
练习数值:Na⁺ 129 mmol/L,葡萄糖 18.4 mmol/L,尿素 24.9 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
某练习血气显示 pH 7.31,PaCO₂ 31 mmHg (4.1 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 15 mmol/L,Na⁺ 139,Cl⁻ 96 mmol/L。利用阴离子间隙和 Δ 比值,点选最合适的解读。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这位患者装有起搏器。请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。点击你的答案。
答案: B · When contact with blood, body fluids or broken skin is expected
Under standard precautions, gloves are worn when exposure to blood or body fluids is likely. Wearing them for all contact gives false security and can spread germs if not changed.
答案: A · Check the bladder volume with a scanner and report the findings
These signs suggest postoperative urinary retention. A bladder scan confirms the volume, and the doctor is told so it can be relieved, often by catheterisation.
答案: A · The body fluids can contain active drug for a time after treatment
Many hazardous drugs are excreted in urine, stool and vomit for a period after treatment. Staff wear protective gloves and gowns when handling these fluids, according to policy.
答案: C · 关闭房门,并将处于危险中的患者水平转移到防火门后
关门可减缓烟和火的蔓延。处于紧急危险中的患者应水平转移到防火门后的安全区域,必要时再进一步疏散。不使用电梯,蔓延中的火应交给消防员处理。
答案: B · 一名 COPD 患者,吸氧 1 L/min,SpO₂ 90%(目标 88–92%),能说完整的句子
这名 COPD 患者在规定的目标范围内且感觉舒适,因此是稳定的。术后心率上升、肺水肿征象和突发剧烈头痛都需要及时评估。
答案: C · A confused older adult at high risk of falls
A confused patient at high risk of falls benefits from being close to staff, so they can be observed and helped quickly. The other patients are stable and independent.
答案: A · 接触防护:手套、围裙以及良好的手卫生
MRSA 主要通过直接和间接接触传播,因此接触防护、尽可能隔离以及严格的手卫生可以限制传播。
答案: A · Postural hypotension
A fall in systolic pressure of 20 mmHg or more (here 26 mmHg) on standing, especially with symptoms, indicates postural hypotension. Causes include medicines, dehydration and autonomic problems.
答案: B · Your stools may turn dark green or black
Oral iron commonly darkens the stools, which is harmless, but black tarry stools with abdominal pain should be reported. Milk, antacids and tea reduce absorption; vitamin C or orange juice can improve it.核对依据: Ferrograd C patient information leaflet (ferrous sulfate + vitamin C) · electronic medicines compendium (eMC), UK (2018)
答案: B · Saving all urine in the collection container as instructed
UAP can help with routine, standard tasks such as saving urine and keeping the container cool as instructed. Teaching, clinical decisions and interpreting results require nursing judgment and stay with the RN.核对依据: 24-Hour Urine Collection and Analysis · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2024)
答案: A · 袢利尿剂,如呋塞米
袢利尿剂阻断升支粗段的 Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl⁻ 同向转运体,是作用最强的利尿剂。
答案: D · Fast replacement raises cardiac oxygen demand and can cause angina
Thyroid hormone increases metabolic rate, heart rate and contractility. In older people and those with heart disease, the dose is started low and increased slowly to avoid ischaemia and arrhythmias.
答案: B · Brown staining, swelling and dry, itchy skin
High venous pressure causes oedema and leakage of red cells, depositing haemosiderin (brown staining), with venous eczema and lipodermatosclerosis. Pale, shiny, hairless skin suggests arterial disease. Venous ulcers often form above the medial malleolus.
答案: A · 让患者坐起,全面评估并报告液体过多
体重迅速增加伴湿啰音和端坐呼吸提示液体过多和心力衰竭加重。坐直可减少静脉回流并缓解呼吸。护士应完成评估(氧合趋势、液体平衡、水肿)并上报,以便开处方者调整利尿剂。补充更多液体或平躺会加重淤血。
答案: D · Through the mouth (orogastric)
A tube passed through the nose could enter the cranial vault through the fractured skull base. An orogastric route avoids this. Nasal suction and nose blowing are also avoided.
答案: A · 呼叫紧急援助:血肿可能压迫气道
伴有喘鸣的迅速增大的颈部血肿是气道急症。应呼叫紧急援助;在许多病房,会在床边拆除夹子或缝线以松解血肿(遵循当地急救程序),然后再进行确定性的气道管理和手术。
答案: D · They may under-report pain, so active assessment is needed
Older adults may minimise pain or have cognitive or sensory problems that hinder reporting. Regular assessment with suitable tools and careful analgesia, starting low and adjusting slowly, are recommended.
答案: D · 用生理盐水浸湿的无菌敷料覆盖,屈膝,呼叫外科医生
内脏脱出是外科急症。用无菌、生理盐水浸湿的敷料覆盖脏器,让患者取低半卧位并屈膝以减少张力,保持禁食,监测休克并呼叫外科医生。绝不能试图将脏器还纳。
答案: C · It shunts blood from the right atrium to the left atrium
The foramen ovale shunts blood from the right to the left atrium. The ductus arteriosus links the pulmonary artery to the aorta, and the ductus venosus lets umbilical venous blood bypass the liver.
答案: B · A quiet, dim room, swaddling and small, frequent feeds
Neonatal abstinence (withdrawal) is managed first with non-drug care: low stimulation, swaddling, skin-to-skin, responsive feeding and rooming-in. Medication is added if scores stay high. Naloxone can precipitate seizures.
答案: A · Schoolwork and contact with classmates, plus games or hobbies
School-age children need to feel competent and connected. Hospital school, contact with friends and age-appropriate games, crafts and collections support Erikson's task of industry and reduce feelings of isolation.
答案: A · 500 g, about 5% of his body weight, mostly fluid
10 kg − 9.5 kg = 0.5 kg; 0.5 ÷ 10 = 5%. Rapid weight loss during acute illness is mostly fluid, so it is a useful measure of the degree of dehydration, alongside clinical signs.
答案: A · The patient will make small everyday decisions on her own
People with dependent personality disorder have an excessive need to be cared for and difficulty making decisions. Nursing care encourages and praises small independent decisions to build confidence.
答案: C · Discuss the problem openly and involve patients in finding a solution
In a therapeutic milieu, the ward environment itself is used for treatment. Shared decision-making in community meetings builds responsibility, social skills and trust.
答案: 22:05
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: c = 5.2 mmol/L
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 9.6 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 0.7 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 80 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
使用微滴输液器(60 gtt/mL)时,gtt/min 等于 mL/h。
答案: D = 6 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: V = 1 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 22.5 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: I = 1250 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 4.8 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 4 h 48 min,所以袋子大约在 19:48 输完。
答案: B = 10
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: DBP = 50 mmHg
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
答案: Osm = 301 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 单纯高间隙酸中毒
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 心房颤动
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 双腔(房室)起搏心律
起搏心律:起搏器脉冲表现为一条细而垂直的起搏钉样信号。心室钉样信号之后的 QRS 是增宽的(0.12 s 或以上),因为冲动是从导线经心肌传播,而不是经传导系统;右心室起搏时,在 II 导联上通常以负向为主。P 波之前的钉样信号表示心房起搏;双腔(房室)起搏器则表现为心房钉样信号加 P 波,再经过程控的房室延迟,出现心室钉样信号和增宽的 QRS。夺获是指每个钉样信号之后都跟着一次除极。夺获失败是指钉样信号之后没有 P 波或 QRS;感知不良(钉样信号无视患者自己的心搏)和起搏不良(该出现钉样信号时没有)是另外两种典型的故障。
起搏产生的 QRS 本来就是增宽的;不要称它为束支传导阻滞或室性心律。
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