感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A small blood spill is found on the ward floor. What is the correct approach?
Which postoperative finding should be reported most urgently?
An infant has had a cleft lip repair. Why are elbow restraints often used?
A responsive 6-month-old infant is choking and cannot cry or cough. What should the rescuer do?
一名通常在产科工作的护士被调派到成人内科病房。最适合分配给这名护士的患者是哪一位?
经尿道前列腺切除术后持续膀胱冲洗,患者的哪项发现是非预期的,需要采取行动?
Which finding with a groin hernia needs urgent surgical review?
An older man has sudden severe abdominal and back pain, is hypotensive and has a pulsating mass in the abdomen. What should be suspected?
Which finding during a transfusion suggests transfusion-associated circulatory overload (TACO)?
A patient with acute kidney injury after severe dehydration has a rising creatinine. Which urine findings support a prerenal cause rather than acute tubular necrosis (ATN)?
他汀类药物的哪种严重但罕见的不良反应需要患者立即报告?
药物 X 的最大反应为 100%,EC50 为 1 mg。药物 Y 的最大反应为 100%,EC50 为 10 mg。哪种说法正确?
Which position is usually best for the legs of a patient with chronic venous insufficiency and ankle swelling?
An 84-year-old with heart failure becomes breathless with new crackles and a rising blood pressure during a blood transfusion. What should the nurse suspect?
Which symptoms are typical of hypokalaemia?
一名持续夜间肠内营养的患者,其胰岛素的给药时间与营养液相匹配。凌晨 02:00 导管堵塞,营养液停止。主要风险是什么,护士应怎么做?
Which instruction is important during bowel preparation for colonoscopy?
Why is folinic acid (leucovorin) given after high-dose methotrexate?
The fetus is in the left occiput anterior position. Where is the fetal heart usually heard best?
A pregnant woman with chronic hypertension takes lisinopril. Why should the nurse alert the prescriber?
哪项注意事项适用于血友病患儿?
An overweight 12-year-old has had a limp and knee pain for 3 weeks. The knee looks normal. What should the nurse suspect?
The parents of a 9-year-old starting methylphenidate ask about side effects. What should the nurse teach?
A 20-year-old recovering from a first episode of psychosis smokes cannabis every day. What should the nurse include in teaching?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次滴速计算得到 71.615 gtt/min。 本练习的规则是:滴速取整到最接近的整滴。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 血糖结果为 3.7 mmol/L。按葡萄糖 1 mmol/L = 18 mg/dL,求以 mg/dL 表示的c,取到最接近的整数。
某患者体重 60 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 10 mg/kg,分 4 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
一袋输液在 1000 mL 中含 40000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 1200 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
用滴系数为 20 滴/mL 的输液器在 12 小时内输入 1500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
将 200 mg 药物稀释于 100 mL 中,通过滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。医嘱为每小时 150 mg。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 98 kg 的患者推注肝素 60 units/kg。药瓶规格为 5 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 100 kg 的患者的医嘱为norepinephrine 10 mcg/min。输液袋中含 8 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 120 mL/h 输注。到 18:30 时已输入 50 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的脉搏为 111 次/分,血压为 90/59 mmHg。求休克指数SI = HR/SBP。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 12 次/分,SpO₂ 96%吸室内空气,血压 130/78 mmHg,脉搏 58 次/分,新出现意识模糊,体温 37.0 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
练习数值:Na⁺ 128 mmol/L,葡萄糖 10.6 mmol/L,尿素 4.8 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
在海平面,某练习血气取自吸入 28% 氧气时,显示 PaO₂ 95 mmHg (12.7 kPa),PaCO₂ 53 mmHg (7.1 kPa)。用 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 求A–a 梯度。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这条 II 导联心电图显示二度房室传导阻滞 I 型(文氏现象)。共有多少个每组的 P 波数,包括未下传的那一个(n:(n − 1) 阻滞中的 n)?
答案: A · Wear gloves and an apron and clean it with an approved disinfectant per policy
Under standard precautions all blood is handled as potentially infectious. Spills are cleaned promptly using PPE and the spill kit or disinfectant set out in local policy.
答案: A · Respiratory rate 8/min and difficult to rouse
A low respiratory rate with reduced consciousness may mean opioid toxicity or deterioration and threatens the airway. The other findings are common after surgery and can be managed routinely.
答案: B · To stop the infant’s hands reaching the mouth while still allowing arm movement
Elbow restraints keep the elbows straight so the infant cannot touch the suture line. They are removed regularly, one at a time, for skin checks and movement under supervision.
答案: A · Give back blows and chest thrusts in turn
For infants under one year, the rescuer alternates sets of back blows with chest thrusts, with the head lower than the chest. Abdominal thrusts are not used in infants, and blind finger sweeps can push the object further in.
答案: A · 口服抗生素治疗稳定的肺炎患者
被调派的护士应分配到病情稳定、护理使用一般技能的患者。新做气管切开、活动性出血以及因 DKA 使用胰岛素输注,需要本病房专门的经验和密切监测。
答案: B · 鲜红色尿液伴血块,导尿管流出量减少
鲜红色尿液伴血块提示动脉出血,并可能堵塞导尿管,导致膀胱膨胀。淡粉色尿液、尿急感和轻度痉挛在此手术后很常见。
答案: A · The lump has become painful and tender and cannot be pushed back
An irreducible, painful, tender hernia, especially with vomiting, suggests incarceration or strangulation. This is a surgical emergency because the trapped bowel can become ischaemic.
答案: C · A ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm
A ruptured AAA classically presents with pain, shock and a pulsatile mass. It is a surgical emergency needing immediate senior help and transfer to theatre.
答案: C · Crackles, hypertension and a raised BNP
TACO is fluid overload, often in older adults or those with heart or kidney disease. It causes dyspnea, crackles, hypertension, distended neck veins and a raised BNP. The transfusion is stopped, the patient is sat up and diuretics may be prescribed.
答案: B · Low urine sodium and concentrated urine with a high specific gravity
In prerenal AKI the tubules are intact, so they keep sodium and water, giving a low urine sodium and concentrated urine. In ATN the damaged tubules cannot do this, so urine sodium is high, the urine is dilute and muddy brown casts appear.核对依据: Urine specific gravity test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: D · 不明原因的肌肉疼痛或无力
他汀类可引起肌病,极少数会进展为伴肾损伤的横纹肌溶解。不明原因的肌痛应进行检查,例如测定肌酸激酶。
答案: A · X 的效价强度高于 Y,两者效能相同
EC50 越低,产生一半效应所需的药量越少,因此 X 的效价强度更高。两者达到相同的最大反应,所以效能相等。
答案: D · Raised above the level of the heart when resting
Elevating the legs above heart level reduces venous pressure and oedema. Compression therapy, walking and avoiding long periods of standing also help. By contrast, patients with arterial disease often find that lowering the legs eases pain.
答案: C · Transfusion-associated circulatory overload
Transfusion-associated circulatory overload causes breathlessness, crackles, raised BP and JVP during or soon after transfusion, especially in older people and those with heart or kidney disease. The transfusion is stopped or slowed, the patient sat up and given oxygen, and diuretics may be prescribed. Slow rates and single units with reassessment reduce the risk.
答案: A · Muscle weakness, cramps and palpitations
Low potassium causes muscle weakness, cramps, constipation and arrhythmias. ECG changes include flattened T waves and U waves. Tingling and twitching suggest low calcium.
答案: C · 低血糖;经常检测血糖,并按计划进行血糖保护
如果为覆盖营养液而给予的胰岛素仍在起作用时营养液停止,患者可能发生低血糖。护士应经常检测血糖,通知团队,尽可能恢复喂养,并按处方计划(如静脉葡萄糖)执行,直到重新开始喂养。1 型糖尿病的基础胰岛素不能简单停用。
答案: A · Drink plenty of clear fluids while taking the preparation
Bowel preparation causes profuse diarrhoea, which can lead to dehydration and electrolyte disturbance. Patients follow a low-residue diet, then clear fluids, and drink plenty of extra clear fluid.
答案: B · To rescue normal cells from methotrexate toxicity
Methotrexate inhibits dihydrofolate reductase. Timed folinic acid bypasses this block in normal cells, reducing toxicity such as mucositis and myelosuppression, while methotrexate levels and kidney function are monitored.
答案: C · Below the umbilicus on the mother's left side
The fetal heart is heard most clearly through the fetal back. In a cephalic LOA position, that is in the lower left quadrant. In breech presentations, it is usually heard above the umbilicus.
答案: C · ACE inhibitors can harm fetal kidney development and are avoided in pregnancy
ACE inhibitors are fetotoxic, especially in the second and third trimesters, causing fetal kidney damage and oligohydramnios. Labetalol, nifedipine or methyldopa are used instead.
答案: B · 尽可能避免肌内注射和测量直肠温度
应避免会引起出血的操作和药物:肌内注射、直肠测温、阿司匹林和非甾体抗炎药。关节出血采用凝血因子替代、休息、冰敷、加压和抬高来处理。
答案: C · Slipped capital femoral epiphysis
Slipped capital femoral epiphysis typically affects overweight adolescents during the growth spurt. Hip pathology often presents as knee pain. The child should avoid weight-bearing and needs urgent orthopaedic assessment.
答案: D · Give it in the morning, and watch for poor appetite, weight loss and trouble sleeping
Stimulants commonly reduce appetite and can cause insomnia, so doses are given early in the day. Height and weight are checked regularly because growth can slow.
答案: B · Cannabis use increases the risk of psychotic symptoms returning
Cannabis, especially high-potency forms, is linked to a higher risk of psychosis and to relapse in people who have had a psychotic episode. A non-judgemental discussion and support to cut down are part of relapse prevention.
答案: x = 72 gtt/min
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: c = 67 mg/dL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: D = 150 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 30 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 42 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:42 滴/分。
答案: R = 75 gtt/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: V = 1.2 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 18.8 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: B = −300 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为负:患者丢失的液体多于摄入的液体。
答案: t = 3.8 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 3 h 45 min,所以袋子大约在 22:15 输完。
答案: SI = 1.23
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
1 或更高:在这个练习病例中是休克的警示信号。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
答案: Osm = 271 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: A–a 梯度 = 38.39 mmHg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 交界性心律
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 每组的 P 波数 = 4
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
4:3 文氏阻滞。
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