感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A dying patient is no longer drinking and breathes through the mouth. What mouth care is most appropriate?
发现已经到达患者的给药差错时,正确做法是什么?
Why is blood glucose control important around the time of surgery?
A nurse teaches parents of a toddler about drowning prevention. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A patient receiving an aminoglycoside antibiotic, such as gentamicin, reports ringing in the ears. What should the nurse do?
At the end of a shift, the nurse’s relief has not arrived and the patients are acutely ill. What should the nurse do?
关于注射胰岛素,哪项说法正确?
A patient taking regular ibuprofen suddenly develops severe upper abdominal pain, a rigid abdomen and becomes tachycardic. What is most likely?
A patient's potassium is unexpectedly 5.8 mEq/L. The sample was taken after the tourniquet was on for several minutes while the patient pumped their fist. What is the best interpretation?
A woman who is 34 weeks pregnant has high blood pressure, right upper abdominal pain, a platelet count of 70 × 10³/µL, raised ALT and AST, and a raised LDH. Which condition fits best?
二甲双胍主要通过什么方式降低血糖?
A patient on stable warfarin is prescribed a course of metronidazole. What is the likely effect, and what should the nurse expect?
Which energy-conservation advice is most useful for a patient with severe COPD?
Minutes after an IV antibiotic is started, a patient has wheeze, swollen lips, a rash and BP 78/44 mmHg. The infusion has been stopped and help called. What is the next priority?
An 82-year-old taking apixaban fell three weeks ago. Since then their family has noticed increasing confusion and headaches. Which condition is most likely?
A day after a total thyroidectomy, a patient has tingling lips, a positive Chvostek's sign and a corrected calcium of 1.85 mmol/L (about 7.4 mg/dL). What does the nurse expect?
Why is an ankle-brachial pressure index (ABPI) measured before compression bandaging for a leg ulcer?
On day 3 after admission, a patient with alcohol dependence becomes confused, with hallucinations, sweating, tremor, fever and tachycardia. What is the most likely cause?
Which event in an Rh-negative, non-sensitised woman requires an extra dose of anti-D immunoglobulin?
A woman at 8 weeks takes valproate for epilepsy. She asks whether she should stop it. Which response is best?
Which activity best supports a 9-year-old during a long hospital stay?
一名肾病综合征患儿正在使用大剂量皮质类固醇。对家属来说,哪项指导最重要?
Which communication approach is best for a patient with moderate dementia?
A voluntary patient asks to leave the ward now. While talking, he says he plans to jump from a bridge on the way home. What should the nurse do?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 7:35 PM。哪个条目是 24 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了3 tsp / 止咳糖浆, 1½ 杯 / 茶, ½ fl oz / 果汁, 1 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一名体重 36 kg 的儿童按 2 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 10 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
处方剂量为 3.48 mg。安瓿每 mL 含 4000 微克。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 20 滴/mL 的输液器在 5 小时内输入 250 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋液体在 500 mL 中含药 400 mg,以 5 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 96 kg 的患者推注肝素 80 units/kg。药瓶规格为 5 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 91 kg 的患者的医嘱为nitroglycerin 5 mcg/min。输液袋中含 50 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 1000 mL 的输液于 07:30 开始以 80 mL/h 输注。3 小时后速率改为 125 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 是; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 拐杖、手杖或助行器; 静脉输液或封管: 是; 步态: 正常、卧床休息或轮椅; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 149 kg,身高 195 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 8 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
练习数值:Na⁺ 136,Cl⁻ 85,HCO₃⁻ 17 mmol/L。使用 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) 计算 Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻)。保留两位小数。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
依次按五个步骤解读这条 II 导联心电图:心率、节律、P 波、PR 间期、QRS 时限。你在哪一步发现第一个异常?点击它。
答案: D · Keep the mouth and lips moist with frequent gentle care
Frequent gentle mouth care with moist swabs, water sprays and lip balm keeps the patient comfortable. Forcing fluids risks choking and aspiration.
答案: D · 评估患者情况,告知开具医嘱者,并通过不良事件系统上报
评估并监测患者,告知负责的临床医生,上报事件,并对患者坦诚。绝不能为掩盖差错而修改记录。
答案: D · High glucose impairs white cell function and raises the risk of surgical site infection
Hyperglycemia weakens neutrophil function and slows healing, so it increases the risk of surgical site infection. Keeping glucose in the target range is part of infection prevention for surgical patients.
答案: B · “I can leave my 2-year-old in the bath for a minute if the water is shallow.”
A toddler should never be left alone in the bath, even for a moment and even in shallow water. Fencing pools, constant close supervision and emptying containers are correct.
答案: A · Hold the next dose and report it promptly
Aminoglycosides can cause ototoxicity, which may be permanent. Tinnitus or hearing loss is reported promptly, and drug levels and kidney function are checked.
答案: D · Stay and tell the charge nurse, and hand over before leaving
The nurse must not leave patients without handing over to another qualified nurse. Telling the charge nurse allows staffing to be arranged safely.
答案: A · 轮换注射部位以避免脂肪增生
轮换部位可防止形成使吸收难以预测的脂肪硬结。浑浊胰岛素应轻轻滚动混匀,而不是摇晃。
答案: D · A perforated peptic ulcer
Sudden severe pain with a board-like abdomen suggests perforation and peritonitis. The patient needs nil by mouth, IV access, analgesia and urgent surgical review.
答案: B · The result may be falsely high and should be repeated with better technique
Repeated fist clenching and a long tourniquet time release potassium from muscle and can cause hemolysis, both of which give a falsely high potassium. The patient is assessed and the test is repeated with correct technique; true hyperkalemia must not be missed.核对依据: Potassium Blood Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024); Potassium test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: C · HELLP syndrome
HELLP stands for Hemolysis (raised LDH, falling hemoglobin), Elevated Liver enzymes and Low Platelets. It is a severe form of preeclampsia that can cause liver rupture and bleeding, and it usually requires delivery.核对依据: HELLP syndrome · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: C · 减少肝脏葡萄糖的生成
二甲双胍主要减少肝脏糖异生并改善胰岛素敏感性。由于它不刺激胰岛素释放,单独使用时很少发生低血糖。
答案: B · The INR rises, so closer INR monitoring is needed
Metronidazole inhibits the metabolism of warfarin (mainly via CYP2C9), so warfarin levels and the INR rise. The bleeding risk increases, and the INR is checked more often during and after the course.
答案: A · Sit down for tasks such as washing and dressing, and pace activities
Planning and pacing, sitting for tasks, keeping frequently used items within reach and breathing out during effort reduce breathlessness. Complete inactivity worsens deconditioning, so activity is encouraged within limits.
答案: B · Give intramuscular adrenaline (epinephrine)
Anaphylaxis is treated first with intramuscular adrenaline into the anterolateral thigh, repeated after about 5 minutes if needed. It reverses bronchospasm, vasodilation and swelling. Oxygen, IV fluids and lying the patient flat (or sitting if breathing is easier) follow. Antihistamines and steroids are not first-line.
答案: C · Chronic subdural haematoma
Older people have brain atrophy that stretches the bridging veins, and anticoagulants increase bleeding. A slow venous bleed can cause gradual confusion, headache or weakness over weeks. A CT scan is needed.
答案: D · IV calcium gluconate and monitoring for laryngospasm
Symptomatic hypocalcaemia is treated with IV calcium gluconate, followed by oral calcium and often vitamin D. Severe hypocalcaemia can cause laryngospasm, seizures and arrhythmias, so the airway and ECG are monitored.
答案: C · To exclude significant arterial disease
ABPI compares ankle and arm systolic pressures. A low ABPI suggests arterial disease, where compression could cause ischaemia, so assessment is needed before compression therapy.
答案: B · Delirium tremens from alcohol withdrawal
Delirium tremens usually develops 2–3 days after stopping alcohol and is a medical emergency. It is treated with benzodiazepines, fluids, thiamine and close monitoring, ideally prevented by a withdrawal protocol.
答案: D · Amniocentesis
Any potentially sensitising event, such as amniocentesis, abdominal trauma, bleeding, miscarriage or ectopic pregnancy, can mix fetal and maternal blood. Anti-D is given after it to prevent antibody formation.
答案: C · Do not stop it suddenly; arrange urgent specialist review
Valproate is strongly teratogenic, but stopping antiepileptics suddenly can cause seizures that harm mother and fetus. She needs urgent specialist review to change treatment safely, ideally before conception.
答案: C · Schoolwork and contact with classmates, plus games or hobbies
School-age children need to feel competent and connected. Hospital school, contact with friends and age-appropriate games, crafts and collections support Erikson's task of industry and reduce feelings of isolation.
答案: B · 及时报告发热或感染征象
使用类固醇的肾病综合征患儿易发生腹膜炎和蜂窝织炎等严重感染。类固醇必须逐渐减量,不能突然停用,大剂量治疗期间应推迟接种活疫苗。
答案: C · Use short, simple sentences and give one instruction at a time
Simple, one-step instructions, calm tone, eye contact and enough time to respond support understanding. Questions with yes/no or limited choices are easier to answer than open, complex ones.
答案: A · Stay with him and inform the team at once, so he can be urgently assessed under mental health law
A voluntary patient who shows immediate serious risk may need urgent assessment under mental health legislation, which often includes short-term holding powers for nurses. The nurse acts quickly to keep him safe.
答案: 19:35
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 405 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 7.2 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 0.87 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: R = 17 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:17 滴/分。
答案: D = 4 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: V = 1.5 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 1.5 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: I = 1350 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 9.1 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 9 h 05 min,所以袋子大约在 16:35 输完。
答案: MFS = 60
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 肥胖 II 级
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: PaCO₂ = 20 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: Δ 比值 = 3.143
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
高于 2:合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 一度房室传导阻滞
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: QRS 时限
每条心电图的五个步骤:1. 心率(300 法或 1500 法;若不规则则用 6 秒法);2. 节律:R–R 间期是否相等;3. P 波:是否存在、在 II 导联直立、每个 QRS 之前各有一个且形态一致;4. PR 间期:0.12–0.20 s 且恒定;5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s。五个步骤做完之后才命名节律。正常窦性心律五项全部符合:60–100 次/分,规则,每个 QRS 之前有直立 P 波,PR 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 低于 0.12 s。
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