感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A student nurse is asked to carry out a procedure they have not been trained to do. What should they do?
一名意识混乱的患者反复试图翻越已升起的床栏。最安全的做法是什么?
Which type of white blood cell is most often raised in viral infections?
A patient on a general ward for two days is found to have smear-positive pulmonary TB. What should the nurse do besides moving the patient to an airborne isolation room?
A patient with type 1 diabetes has vomited since morning and cannot eat. Which action is most important?
A patient is admitted with inhalational anthrax. Which precautions are needed?
A patient has lost more than 10% of their body weight without trying over the last few months and has a low BMI. What is the most appropriate action?
Why are early surgery and early mobilisation recommended for older patients with a hip fracture?
A patient with hyperkalemia is prescribed an oral potassium binder such as patiromer or sodium zirconium cyclosilicate. How does this drug lower potassium?
A patient recovering from acute tubular necrosis now passes 4–5 L of urine a day. Which electrolyte changes should the nurse watch for?
美托洛尔等 β 受体阻滞剂主要阻断哪种受体?
A patient on weekly methotrexate is prescribed trimethoprim for a urinary infection. What is the main risk?
How do clopidogrel and ticagrelor work?
一名哮喘患者的峰流速为其最佳值的 40%,呼吸频率 28 次/分,不能说完整句子。SpO₂ 94%。该次发作应如何分级?
A patient has acute glomerulonephritis with oedema and high blood pressure. Which nursing care is most appropriate?
The nurse has four neurology patients. Which one needs to be seen first?
Which complication is more typical of Crohn's disease than of ulcerative colitis?
A patient with haematemesis becomes drowsy and starts to vomit blood again. What is the immediate priority?
Why is indomethacin generally not used as a tocolytic after about 32 weeks?
A woman at 26 weeks has a haemoglobin of 95 g/L (9.5 g/dL) and a low ferritin. She is already taking oral iron but has severe side effects. What might be considered?
How is amblyopia (lazy eye) commonly treated in young children?
一名疑似阑尾炎的 10 岁儿童一直有剧烈腹痛,但疼痛突然明显缓解。这可能意味着什么?
一名精神分裂症患者说:“那些声音在说我是邪恶的。”哪种回应最好?
一名每天服用高剂量苯二氮䓬类药物一年的患者告诉你,她 2 天前突然停药了。主要风险是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 36.2 °C。用 °F = °C × 9/5 + 32 把它换算为华氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液½ tbsp,每 6 小时一次,共 14 天。按1 tbsp = 15 mL,整个疗程需要多少 mLV?
50 mL 的 1%(w/v)溶液中含有多少毫克药物 m?
一名体重 12 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 10 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 250 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 6 小时内输入 1000 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋中含有 1 g 药物,溶于 250 mL。医嘱为每分钟 1.5 mg。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份输液含普通胰岛素 50 单位,容量 50 mL。医嘱为 0.05 units/kg/h,患者体重 74 kg。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dobutamine 250 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 5 mL/h 输注。患者体重 60 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 107 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 18:00 开始以 120 mL/h 输注。2 小时后速率改为 100 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 无损害; 潮湿程度: 非常潮湿; 活动: 偶尔步行; 活动能力: 不受限制; 营养: 可能不足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 无明显问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 76 kg,身高 157 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
练习数值:Na⁺ 128 mmol/L,葡萄糖 9.4 mmol/L,尿素 23 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
某练习血气显示呼吸性酸中毒:pH 7.19,PaCO₂ 73 mmHg (9.7 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 27 mmol/L。利用规则“HCO₃⁻ 每 10 mmHg 升高 1 mmol/L(急性)或 3.5 mmol/L(慢性)”进行分类。点选你的答案。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
答案: B · Explain that they have not been trained and ask for supervision
Nurses and students must only practise within their competence. Saying so, and asking to observe or be supervised, protects the patient and the student.
答案: A · 重新评估,并考虑替代方案,如低位床和加强观察
对于会翻越床栏的患者,床栏可能增加受伤风险。在治疗意识混乱原因的同时,采用限制最少的方案,如低位床、地垫和加强观察,更为安全。
答案: C · Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes increase in many viral infections. Neutrophils rise mainly with bacterial infections, and eosinophils with allergies and parasites.
答案: D · Inform infection prevention so exposed patients and staff can be identified and followed up
Infection prevention and public health carry out a contact investigation to identify and screen people exposed while the patient was not isolated. Treatment of contacts depends on their test results.
答案: D · Check the blood glucose and ketones and contact the provider
Vomiting in type 1 diabetes can lead quickly to diabetic ketoacidosis. Glucose and ketones are checked and the provider is contacted; insulin is usually not stopped completely during illness.
答案: A · Standard precautions, because it does not usually spread from person to person
Inhalational anthrax is not spread from person to person, so standard precautions are used. Contact precautions may be added for skin (cutaneous) anthrax with draining lesions.
答案: B · Refer to the dietitian and start a nutrition care plan with food charts
Large unplanned weight loss with a low BMI means high malnutrition risk. Management includes dietitian referral, food and fluid charts, support with eating and regular weighing.
答案: A · They reduce complications such as pneumonia, pressure ulcers and delirium
Delayed surgery and immobility increase the risk of chest infection, VTE, pressure ulcers, delirium and loss of independence. Guidelines recommend surgery within about 24–48 hours of admission (UK guidance: the day of or day after) and mobilisation soon after.
答案: D · It binds potassium in the gut so it leaves in the stool
Potassium binders exchange potassium in the gut for another ion, so potassium is removed from the body in the stool. They act over hours, so they are not used alone for emergencies; calcium protects the heart, and insulin with glucose shifts potassium into cells quickly.核对依据: High potassium level · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: A · Low potassium and low sodium from urine losses
In the diuretic phase of AKI, the recovering tubules lose large amounts of water and electrolytes, so dehydration, hypokalemia and hyponatremia can occur. Daily weights, intake and output, and frequent electrolytes guide replacement.核对依据: Acute tubular necrosis · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: C · 心脏的 β1 肾上腺素受体
心脏选择性 β 受体阻滞剂阻断 β1 受体,降低心率、收缩力和肾素释放。
答案: C · Bone marrow suppression, because both drugs inhibit folate metabolism
Trimethoprim and methotrexate both inhibit dihydrofolate reductase, and trimethoprim also reduces methotrexate excretion. The combination can cause severe pancytopenia, so another antibiotic is chosen.
答案: A · They block the platelet ADP (P2Y12) receptor
Clopidogrel, prasugrel and ticagrelor block the P2Y12 ADP receptor on platelets, reducing aggregation. With aspirin, they form dual antiplatelet therapy after acute coronary syndromes and stents. Warfarin inhibits vitamin K-dependent factors; dabigatran inhibits thrombin.
答案: A · 急性重度哮喘
在常用指南(如 BTS/SIGN)中,峰流速为最佳值的 33–50%、呼吸频率 25 次/分或以上、心率 110 次/分或以上,或不能说完整句子,提示急性重度哮喘。危及生命的特征包括峰流速低于 33%、SpO₂ 低于 92%、“沉默肺”、发绀、衰竭或意识混乱;濒死性哮喘是指 PaCO₂ 升高或需要通气。
答案: D · Monitor BP, fluid balance and daily weight
In acute glomerulonephritis, salt and water retention cause oedema and hypertension. Close monitoring of BP, input and output and daily weights is needed, often with salt and fluid restriction and antihypertensives.
答案: D · A patient with Guillain–Barré syndrome whose vital capacity is falling
A falling vital capacity and weak cough in Guillain–Barré syndrome warn of respiratory failure, which may need ventilation. The other patients have expected or less urgent problems.
答案: D · Fistulas between the bowel and other organs
Transmural inflammation in Crohn's disease can create fistulas, abscesses and strictures. Ulcerative colitis is mucosal, and removing the colon and rectum is curative.
答案: D · Turn the patient onto their side to protect the airway
A drowsy patient who is vomiting may aspirate blood. Positioning on the side and suctioning protect the airway while help is called; large-bore IV access, bloods and fluid resuscitation follow.
答案: C · It can close the fetal ductus arteriosus too early
Indomethacin inhibits prostaglandin synthesis. In the fetus this can cause premature closure of the ductus arteriosus and reduced fetal urine output with oligohydramnios, risks that increase with gestational age.
答案: B · Intravenous iron
When oral iron is not tolerated or not effective, intravenous iron may be used in the second and third trimesters. Transfusion is reserved for severe or symptomatic anaemia or acute blood loss.
答案: D · Patching or blurring the stronger eye so the weaker eye works harder
Treatment includes glasses if needed and patching or atropine drops in the stronger eye, forcing the brain to use the weaker eye. It works best when started early, while the visual system is still developing.
答案: C · 阑尾可能已穿孔;应立即上报
阑尾炎患者疼痛突然缓解可能提示穿孔,随后出现腹膜炎,疼痛加重、发热和腹肌强直。需要紧急上报。
答案: A · “我听不到那些声音,但我能看出它们让你很难受。它们在对你说什么?”
护士不争论也不附和,而是说明自己所感知的现实,表达共情,并询问内容,尤其要留意可能使患者或他人面临风险的命令性幻听。
答案: B · 戒断性惊厥
长期大剂量使用后突然戒断可引起严重焦虑、震颤、知觉障碍和惊厥。应通知开医嘱者,并考虑在监督下逐渐减量。
答案: T = 97.2 °F
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 420 mL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: m = 500 mg
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: V = 2.4 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 42 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:42 滴/分。
答案: R = 22.5 mL/h
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 3.7 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 1.4 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 1.11 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 4.6 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 4 h 36 min,所以袋子大约在 22:36 输完。
答案: B = 18
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 肥胖 I 级
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: Osm = 288 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 急性
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 室上性心动过速(SVT)
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。 窄 QRS 心动过速与停顿:室上性心动过速(SVT)是规则的心动过速,约 150–250 次/分钟,QRS 波群较窄;P 波通常看不到,因为它们隐藏在 QRS 波群或 T 波中。成人静息时的窦性心动过速通常低于约 150 次/分钟,且每个 QRS 前都有可见的 P 波;伴 2:1 传导的心房扑动常在约 150 次/分钟,并显示锯齿波。窦性停搏是指窦房结暂时停止发放冲动:出现既无 P 波也无 QRS 的停顿,其长度不是 P–P 周期的整数倍(恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞)。
答案: 室性自搏心律
更多室性心律:尖端扭转型室性心动过速是一种多形性室性心动过速,通常为 150–250 次/分钟,其增宽的波群高度不断变化并围绕基线扭转,先向上几个心搏,再向下。教科书将其与 QT 间期延长联系起来,复苏指南中针对它推荐的药物是硫酸镁。室性自搏心律是一种心室逸搏心律:规则、QRS 增宽(0.12 s 或以上)、无 P 波,频率 20–40 次/分钟(加速性室性自搏心律为 40–100 次/分钟)。单形性室速的增宽波群完全相同,频率超过 100 次/分钟。室颤则是混乱的,没有任何重复的波群。
室性自搏心律是一种逸搏心律:由于上方的起搏点失灵,心室接管了节律。
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