感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
护士给疼痛的患者使用了镇痛药。下一步重要的是什么?
A patient has been taught to walk with underarm crutches. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
一名使用利尿剂的患者跌倒风险高,夜间常起床。下列哪项措施最有帮助?
A patient with depression has suddenly become calm and is giving away personal possessions. What does this suggest?
A pregnant nurse is on the unit. Which patient should the charge nurse avoid assigning to her?
在外科病房,护士应首先看哪位术后患者?
Which is a major risk factor for Clostridioides difficile infection?
A patient with suspected appendicitis says the pain suddenly eased, but an hour later has pain all over the abdomen, a rigid abdomen and a fever. What is most likely?
为什么对血清白蛋白低的患者,必须谨慎解读偏低的总钙?
Three days after starting haloperidol, a patient has a temperature of 40 °C, severe muscle rigidity and confusion. Which laboratory result would the nurse expect?
Why is testing for HLA-B*15:02 recommended before carbamazepine in people of some Asian ancestries?
丙磺舒曾被用来提高血浆青霉素水平。它是如何做到的?
How is orthostatic (postural) hypotension usually assessed?
一名服用比索洛尔和地尔硫䓬的患者头晕,心率 38 次/分,血压 82/50 mmHg。最恰当的首要应对是什么?
An older patient with a long-term catheter has bacteria in the urine but no symptoms. What is usually appropriate?
一名因颈椎骨折佩戴 halo 背心的患者发生心脏骤停。必须立即备好什么?
Which statement about fatigue during radiotherapy is correct?
髋部手术后第 3 天,一名老年患者急性意识混乱,注意力波动并躁动。护士首先应做什么?
Why is a baby of a mother with poorly controlled diabetes often large?
A nurse is teaching a mother how to prevent shaken baby syndrome. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
Which nursing action is correct for a newborn receiving phototherapy?
A 3-year-old was pulled from a pool after a brief submersion. She is now awake and coughs now and then. What should the nurse advise?
A patient with limited English needs a mental health assessment. Who should interpret?
A resident with Alzheimer's disease becomes very agitated and hits out when staff try to help him bathe. What is the best approach?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名新生儿体重 7 lb 6 oz。按 1 lb = 16 oz 和 1 kg = 2.2 lb,求以千克表示的体重m。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 23:05 开始,到次日早晨 08:15 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少分钟t?
一名体重 16 kg 的儿童按 15 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 50 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一名患者体重 189.2 lb。医嘱为单次剂量 1 mg/kg,储备液为 5 mL 中含 250 mg。按 1 kg = 2.2 lb 计算,你应给予多少容量 V? 保留一位小数。
用滴系数为 60 滴/mL 的输液器在 8 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋液体在 100 mL 中含药 400 mg,以 12 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份输液含普通胰岛素 50 单位,容量 50 mL。医嘱为 0.1 units/kg/h,患者体重 80 kg。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 79 kg 的患者的医嘱为norepinephrine 10 mcg/min。输液袋中含 4 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 11:45 开始用输液泵以 100 mL/h 输注。到 15:15 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 轻度受限; 潮湿程度: 很少潮湿; 活动: 局限于椅子; 活动能力: 完全不能活动; 营养: 非常差; 摩擦力和剪切力: 有问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 完全受限; 潮湿程度: 持续潮湿; 活动: 局限于椅子; 活动能力: 轻度受限; 营养: 非常差; 摩擦力和剪切力: 有问题。使用的分级为:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度,13–14 中度,10–12 高,9 或以下极高。点击风险等级。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 16 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
练习数值:Na⁺ 134,Cl⁻ 103,HCO₃⁻ 18 mmol/L,白蛋白 33 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
依次按五个步骤解读这条 II 导联心电图:心率、节律、P 波、PR 间期、QRS 时限。你在哪一步发现第一个异常?点击它。
答案: D · 在药物有时间起效后重新评估疼痛
应在与药物和给药途径相匹配的间隔后重新评估疼痛。这能说明治疗是否有效,以及是否出现了镇静等副作用。
答案: D · "I'll rest my weight on the tops of the crutches under my arms."
Leaning on the armpits can damage the brachial plexus and cause crutch palsy. Weight is taken through the hands, with a gap of a few finger-widths between the crutch top and the armpit.
答案: B · 定时协助如厕,并将呼叫器和助行器放在患者够得到的地方
定时协助如厕,并把呼叫器和助行器放在可及之处,可减少无人协助的行走。利尿剂在早晨而不是睡前给药也有帮助。夜灯比完全黑暗更安全,无故限制液体可能导致脱水。
答案: C · A possibly increased suicide risk that needs immediate assessment
A sudden improvement in mood with giving away belongings can mean the person has made a plan. The nurse assesses suicide risk directly, increases observation and informs the team.
答案: C · A patient with a sealed radioactive implant for cervical cancer
A sealed radioactive implant (brachytherapy) emits radiation, and pregnant staff should not care for these patients. The other patients pose no special risk to a pregnancy.
答案: C · 颈动脉内膜切除术后 6 小时:颈部肿胀加重,诉吞咽困难
颈动脉手术后颈部肿胀增大提示可能压迫气道的血肿。粉红湿润的造口以及冲洗时淡粉色的尿液是预期的,活动时中度疼痛也很常见。
答案: A · Recent broad-spectrum antibiotic use
Broad-spectrum antibiotics disrupt normal gut flora, letting C. difficile overgrow. Older age, hospital stay and proton pump inhibitors also increase the risk.
答案: C · The appendix has perforated, causing peritonitis
Perforation may briefly relieve the pain as pressure in the appendix falls, followed by generalised peritonitis. This needs urgent surgical review, IV fluids and antibiotics.
答案: C · 许多钙与白蛋白结合,因此即使离子钙正常,总钙也会下降
约 40–45% 的钙与血浆蛋白结合,主要是白蛋白。白蛋白低时,总钙下降,而离子钙可能正常。校正钙或实测离子钙才能反映真实情况。核对依据: Hypocalcemia (StatPearls) · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2026)
答案: B · A very high creatine kinase (CK)
These signs suggest neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a medical emergency. Muscle rigidity releases CK, often to very high levels, and the white count is often raised. Myoglobin can damage the kidneys. The antipsychotic is stopped and supportive care is started.
答案: A · It greatly raises the risk of Stevens–Johnson syndrome
The HLA-B*15:02 allele, common in parts of South-East Asia, is strongly linked to carbamazepine-induced Stevens–Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Carriers are given a different drug.
答案: D · 它阻断肾脏对青霉素的肾小管分泌
青霉素类主要由近端小管的有机阴离子转运体排泄。丙磺舒竞争这些转运体,使青霉素排泄变慢,血药浓度维持在较高水平。
答案: B · BP lying after rest, then again after 1 and 3 minutes standing
Blood pressure is measured after the patient has been lying for about 5 minutes, then after 1 and 3 minutes of standing. A fall in systolic pressure of 20 mmHg or more, or diastolic of 10 mmHg or more, indicates orthostatic hypotension. Symptoms such as dizziness are recorded too.
答案: B · 呼叫紧急援助,进行 ABCDE 评估,并连接心脏监护仪
β 受体阻滞剂和减慢心率的钙通道阻滞剂对窦房结和房室结有叠加作用。伴有低血压的症状性心动过缓是急症:呼叫援助、监护、暂停这些药物,并按心动过缓流程预期使用阿托品,可能还需要起搏。
答案: C · No antibiotics, as long as there are no symptoms
Nearly all long-term catheters become colonised. Treating asymptomatic bacteriuria does not improve outcomes and promotes resistance. Antibiotics are reserved for symptomatic infection.
答案: C · 用于打开背心前部以便进行心肺复苏的工具
用于松开背心前部的工具应一直固定在背心上,以便在心肺复苏或气道管理时迅速打开。针孔部位需要定期护理以防感染,并需要教导患者背心下的皮肤护理。
答案: B · It often builds during the course and can last for weeks
Radiotherapy fatigue usually increases as treatment continues and may persist for weeks or months afterwards. Pacing, light exercise and good sleep and nutrition help.
答案: A · 寻找低氧、感染、疼痛或药物等原因,并上报
急性意识混乱伴注意力波动提示谵妄。它是一种医疗急症,可能有许多原因,如低氧、脓毒症、疼痛、药物(包括阿片类和抗胆碱能药物)、尿潴留、便秘、脱水和电解质问题。应治疗病因,采用非药物措施,镇静仅作为最后手段。
答案: B · Fetal hyperinsulinaemia acts as a growth hormone
Maternal glucose crosses the placenta, so the fetal pancreas makes extra insulin, which promotes growth and fat storage. After birth this extra insulin continues and can cause neonatal hypoglycaemia.
答案: C · "If I feel very angry, it is fine to shake him a little to stop the crying."
Shaking a baby can cause brain injury, retinal haemorrhages and death. Parents are taught that crying is normal, to put the baby down safely and step away when frustrated, and to ask for help.
答案: A · Cover the eyes, expose as much skin as possible and monitor temperature and hydration
Phototherapy works on bilirubin in the skin, so maximal skin should be exposed while the eyes are shielded. Babies can lose extra fluid and become too warm or cold, so temperature, hydration and feeding are monitored; lotions can cause burns.
答案: C · Observe her in hospital for several hours, as breathing problems can develop later
After a drowning incident, even a child who seems well can develop worsening breathing difficulty and low oxygen over the following hours. Children who had symptoms such as coughing need medical assessment and a period of observation.
答案: A · A trained professional interpreter
Professional interpreters translate accurately and keep confidentiality. Family members, especially children, may filter information and should not interpret sensitive assessments such as those about suicide or abuse.
答案: C · Stop, try again later or in a different way, and explain each step calmly
Bathing can feel frightening or undignified. Changing the timing, approach or method, for example a bed bath or shower, giving simple explanations and keeping him covered and warm often reduces distress without force.
答案: m = 3.35 kg
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: t = 550 min
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 4.8 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 1.7 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: R = 63 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:63 滴/分。
答案: D = 48 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 8 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 37.5 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: I = 1150 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 650 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 12
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 极高风险
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: PaCO₂ = 32 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: AGc = 14.75 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: 窦性心律伴室性早搏
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: PR 间期
每条心电图的五个步骤:1. 心率(300 法或 1500 法;若不规则则用 6 秒法);2. 节律:R–R 间期是否相等;3. P 波:是否存在、在 II 导联直立、每个 QRS 之前各有一个且形态一致;4. PR 间期:0.12–0.20 s 且恒定;5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s。五个步骤做完之后才命名节律。正常窦性心律五项全部符合:60–100 次/分,规则,每个 QRS 之前有直立 P 波,PR 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 低于 0.12 s。
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