感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
When should blood cultures be taken in a patient with suspected sepsis?
Which feature suggests that a sore area is a moisture lesion rather than a pressure ulcer?
Which information must be documented when a patient is restrained?
A patient with a common cold asks for antibiotics “to be on the safe side”. Which response is best?
During a blood transfusion, a patient develops chills, back pain and a fever. What is the nurse’s first action?
An adult has burns over 40% of the body with no signs of airway injury. Which treatment is the priority during the first hours?
Which blood results are typical of Addison's disease (primary adrenal insufficiency)?
A patient is recognised by the team as being in the last days of life. Which approach is correct?
A patient on hemodialysis has an arteriovenous (AV) fistula in the left arm. Where should the nurse draw routine blood samples?
A patient has a sodium of 150 mEq/L, a glucose of 180 mg/dL and a BUN of 28 mg/dL. Using the formula 2 × Na + glucose/18 + BUN/2.8, what is the calculated serum osmolality?
ACE 抑制剂典型的常见副作用是什么?
A patient with severe chronic hyponatraemia receives hypertonic saline. Why is the rate of correction strictly limited?
Why is a raised serum lactate concerning in a patient with shock?
During a thrombolytic infusion for an MI, the patient develops a sudden severe headache, vomiting and new confusion. What should the nurse do first?
A patient's potassium stays low despite replacement. Which other level should be checked?
A man who takes tamsulosin for BPH is listed for cataract surgery. Which statement is correct?
Which risk is particularly linked with tramadol?
A 76-year-old with a past peptic ulcer needs long-term anti-inflammatory treatment for arthritis. Which plan best reduces GI bleeding risk?
Low-dose aspirin may be prescribed from early pregnancy to a woman with a high risk of:
一名妊娠期糖尿病女性在孕期使用胰岛素。产后即刻她的胰岛素需求预期会有何变化?
Which sign shows that a baby is ready to start solid foods?
A family with a 2-year-old has a swimming pool in the garden. Which measure gives the most protection against drowning?
A patient taking oxycodone for chronic pain has also been prescribed diazepam. What is the main safety concern?
A patient with an anxiety disorder speaks so quickly about her worries that the nurse cannot follow. Which response is most helpful?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者身高 4 ft 4 in。按 1 ft = 12 in 和 1 in = 2.54 cm,求以厘米表示的身高h,取到最接近的整厘米。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了2 tsp / 止咳糖浆, ¾ 杯 / 茶, ½ tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, 1½ fl oz / 果汁。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一名体重 97 kg 的患者体表面积为 1.87 m²。医嘱为 20 mg/m²。求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
处方为 1900 单位的药物,药液规格为 5000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 10 滴/mL 的输液器在 2 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一组输液以 32 滴/分的速度经 60 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 750 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含 250 单位普通胰岛素、容量 250 mL 的输液以 3 mL/h 输注。患者每小时接受多少单位 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dobutamine 250 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 27 mL/h 输注。患者体重 83 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 1000 mL 的输液于 19:00 开始以 120 mL/h 输注。3 小时后速率改为 100 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位头部损伤后的练习患者完全不睁眼,不发出任何声音,最佳运动反应表现为:完全没有动作。 算出 GCS 并据此对头部损伤分级。点击你的答案。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 完全受限; 潮湿程度: 持续潮湿; 活动: 卧床不起; 活动能力: 完全不能活动; 营养: 非常差; 摩擦力和剪切力: 潜在问题。使用的分级为:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度,13–14 中度,10–12 高,9 或以下极高。点击风险等级。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 16 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 44 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这条 II 导联心电图显示房室传导阻滞,心室节律不规则。使用 6 秒法求出心室率(单位:次/分)。
答案: B · Before antibiotics are given, as long as this does not delay them
Taking cultures first gives the best chance of identifying the organism. They are collected with strict asepsis, but antibiotics must not be delayed in sepsis.
答案: D · Diffuse, irregular redness in a skin fold, not over a bone
Moisture lesions are usually superficial, diffuse and irregular, often in the natal cleft or skin folds. Pressure ulcers are typically over bony prominences and may have necrotic tissue.
答案: B · The reason, alternatives tried, type of restraint, times and regular assessments
Restraint documentation includes the behavior that made it necessary, less restrictive measures tried, the order, the type used, the times applied and released, and ongoing checks of circulation, skin, needs and mental state.
答案: A · Explain that antibiotics do not work on viruses and overuse breeds resistant bacteria
Colds are caused by viruses, which antibiotics do not kill. Unneeded antibiotics cause side effects and drive resistance, so the nurse explains this and offers advice on managing symptoms.
答案: A · Stop the transfusion and keep the IV open with normal saline via new tubing
For any suspected transfusion reaction, the nurse stops the transfusion at once, keeps the vein open with normal saline through new tubing and informs the provider and blood bank.
答案: C · Large-volume IV fluids with close monitoring of urine output
Once the airway is secure, the early priority in major burns is fluid resuscitation to prevent burn shock. Urine output is a key guide to whether enough fluid is being given.
答案: B · Low sodium and high potassium
Without aldosterone, the kidneys lose sodium and retain potassium. Patients may also have low blood pressure, low glucose and increased skin pigmentation.
答案: B · Review and stop treatments that no longer help, and focus on comfort
When dying is recognised, non-beneficial interventions are stopped and anticipatory medicines for symptoms such as pain, agitation and secretions are prescribed. Clear communication with the patient and family is essential.
答案: C · From the right arm
Venipuncture, blood pressure readings and IV lines are avoided in the arm with an AV fistula or graft, to prevent damage, clotting and infection of the access. Only the dialysis team uses the access, for dialysis.
答案: D · About 320 mOsm/kg, which is high
Osmolality = 300 + 10 + 10 = 320 mOsm/kg, above the typical range of about 275–295 mOsm/kg. The high sodium is the main cause, which points to water loss or too little water intake.核对依据: Osmolality blood test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: A · 干咳
ACE 也会降解缓激肽。抑制该酶后,缓激肽在气道中蓄积,部分患者会出现持续干咳。
答案: C · Raising sodium too fast can cause osmotic demyelination in the brain
In chronic hyponatraemia the brain adapts to low osmolality. Correcting sodium too rapidly shrinks brain cells and can cause osmotic demyelination (central pontine myelinolysis), so sodium is checked often.
答案: D · It suggests tissues are short of oxygen and using anaerobic metabolism
When tissues are poorly perfused, cells switch to anaerobic metabolism and produce lactate. A raised lactate is a marker of tissue hypoperfusion and severity in sepsis and shock. Repeated measurements show whether treatment is working.
答案: C · Stop the infusion and call for urgent medical help
Sudden neurological change during or after thrombolysis suggests intracranial haemorrhage. The infusion is stopped immediately, help is called, and urgent CT and reversal are considered. Neurological observations continue.
答案: B · Magnesium
Hypomagnesaemia increases potassium loss in the urine and makes hypokalaemia hard to correct. Magnesium is checked and replaced as well.
答案: A · The eye surgeon must be told, as it can cause floppy iris during surgery
Tamsulosin blocks alpha-1A receptors in the iris dilator muscle as well as in the prostate, which can cause intraoperative floppy iris syndrome during cataract surgery. The effect can persist after the drug is stopped, so the surgeon must know in advance to plan the operation. Whether to pause it is a decision for the team.
答案: C · Serotonin syndrome with some antidepressants, and seizures
Tramadol is a weak opioid that also inhibits serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake. It can lower the seizure threshold and cause serotonin syndrome with SSRIs and other serotonergic drugs.
答案: C · Consider an alternative; if an NSAID is needed, add a PPI
Older age and a previous ulcer greatly increase NSAID-related bleeding. Safer options are considered first; if an NSAID is needed, the lowest effective dose for the shortest time is used with gastroprotection such as a PPI.
答案: A · Pre-eclampsia
Low-dose aspirin started around 12 weeks reduces the risk of pre-eclampsia in women at high risk, such as those with previous pre-eclampsia, chronic hypertension or kidney disease.
答案: B · 迅速下降,因此需监测血糖,常停用胰岛素
胎盘产生引起胰岛素抵抗的激素。分娩后血糖通常恢复正常,因此常停用胰岛素并检测血糖。产后数周她需要做血糖检测,并长期筛查 2 型糖尿病。
答案: A · Sits with support, holds the head steady and shows interest in food
Readiness for solids, usually around 6 months, includes good head control, sitting with support, interest in food and loss of the tongue-thrust reflex. Night waking and teething are not signs of readiness.
答案: D · A four-sided fence with a self-closing, self-latching gate, plus constant supervision
Isolation fencing that fully separates the pool from the house and garden, combined with active adult supervision, is the most effective protection. Flotation aids and lessons do not replace supervision, and toddlers cannot reliably follow safety rules.
答案: B · Increased sedation and respiratory depression
Combining opioids with benzodiazepines greatly increases the risk of sedation, respiratory depression and death. Patients are monitored and taught to avoid alcohol and other sedatives.
答案: B · "Let's slow down and talk about one thing at a time. What worries you most right now?"
Focusing directs the conversation to one main concern, which reduces overwhelm and makes the problem easier to work on. A calm, slow pace from the nurse also helps lower anxiety.
答案: h = 132 cm
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 242.5 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 37.4 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: V = 0.38 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 42 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:42 滴/分。
答案: t = 23.4 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: D = 3 件/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 5.4 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 1440 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 9.4 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 9 h 24 min,所以袋子大约在 04:24 输完。
答案: 重度
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 极高风险
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: PaCO₂ = 32 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: PaCO₂ = 51.8 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: 窦性心动过缓
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 心室率 = 60 bpm
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
二度 II 型:每 3 个 QRS 波群对应 4 个 P 波,PR 恒定。
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