感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
How is pitting oedema checked?
A patient opens their eyes only to pain, makes incomprehensible sounds and withdraws from a painful stimulus. What is the Glasgow Coma Scale score?
When walking with axillary crutches, where should the patient’s weight be taken?
A nurse often skips barcode scanning to save time, as many colleagues do. In a just culture, how is this behavior classed?
护士可以放心最后去看哪位患者?
在 START 分诊中,一名不能行走的成人每分钟呼吸 24 次,有桡动脉搏动,但不能遵从简单指令。该伤员被归入哪一类?
What is the best way to protect the heels of a bed-bound patient from pressure damage?
A patient has new facial weakness. Which feature suggests a stroke rather than Bell's palsy?
A patient scheduled for surgery this morning has a potassium of 3.0 mEq/L on pre-operative tests. What should the nurse do?
A frail older adult in a nursing home has been drinking very little during a heat wave. She is confused, and her sodium is 158 mEq/L. Which treatment would the nurse expect?
A parent will give a liquid medicine to a child at home. Which advice is safest?
Why must several weeks pass before starting an MAO inhibitor after stopping fluoxetine?
Why must intravenous potassium chloride never be given as a rapid push or undiluted?
After positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) is increased on a ventilated patient, the blood pressure falls. What is the most likely reason?
A patient has confirmed meningococcal meningitis. What is usually offered to their close household contacts?
A nurse teaches a carer to give buccal midazolam for prolonged seizures. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
Which measure helps reduce the risk of delirium in an older surgical patient?
During a nasogastric feed, a patient starts coughing and SpO₂ falls from 96% to 89%. What should the nurse do first?
Which is a common sign of iron deficiency anaemia in pregnancy?
A woman at 30 weeks reports a sudden gush of clear fluid from the vagina without contractions. What is the priority nursing action?
护士应如何对一名 15 岁的青少年进行健康访谈?
A 2-year-old has had three febrile urinary tract infections. Which underlying condition should be considered?
A patient with narcissistic personality disorder demands that only the senior doctor should speak to him, because the nurses are "beneath him". What is the best approach?
A young man spends hours a day checking his nose in mirrors and has asked for several operations, although others see nothing unusual about it. What is the most likely diagnosis?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 7:35 PM。哪个条目是 24 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液2 tsp,每 12 小时一次,共 5 天。按1 tsp = 5 mL,整个疗程需要多少 mLV?
某患者体重 25 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 20 mg/kg,分 3 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
一袋输液在 500 mL 中含 50000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 800 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
滴注以 50 gtt/min 的速度通过滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器。患者在 12 小时内接受多少毫升 V?
25 mg 药物溶于 250 mL 的输液以 9 mL/h 运行。患者每分钟接受多少微克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含 250 单位普通胰岛素、容量 250 mL 的输液以 8 mL/h 输注。患者每小时接受多少单位 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 62 kg 的患者的医嘱为norepinephrine 6 mcg/min。输液袋中含 4 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体于 12:15 开始用输液泵以 50 mL/h 输注。到 16:45 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 拐杖、手杖或助行器; 静脉输液或封管: 是; 步态: 虚弱; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 团队的目标是平均动脉压至少为 65 mmHg。一位患者的收缩压为 83 mmHg。使用 MAP = (SBP + 2·DBP)/3,仍能使 MAP 达到 65 mmHg 的最低舒张压DBP是多少?
练习数值:Na⁺ 129 mmol/L,葡萄糖 16.1 mmol/L,尿素 9.8 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 35 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
答案: D · Press over a bony area such as the shin for a few seconds and look for a dent
Pressing over a bony surface pushes fluid out of the tissue; a dent that stays shows pitting oedema. Its depth and how long it lasts are recorded.
答案: C · 8
Eyes to pain score 2, incomprehensible sounds score 2 and withdrawal from pain scores 4, giving 8. A GCS of 8 or less suggests the patient may not be able to protect their airway.
答案: D · On the hands, with the crutch tops a few finger widths below the armpits
Weight is taken on the hands and arms. Leaning on the crutch tops can compress the brachial plexus and cause crutch palsy, so a gap is kept between the crutch top and the axilla.
答案: D · At-risk behavior, managed by coaching and fixing the system pressures behind it
At-risk behavior is a choice whose risk is not recognized or is believed to be justified, often because shortcuts have become normal. It is managed by coaching and removing the pressures behind it, while reckless behavior may need disciplinary action.
答案: D · 一名 COPD 患者,吸氧 1 L/min,SpO₂ 90%(目标 88–92%),能说完整的句子
这名 COPD 患者在规定的目标范围内且感觉舒适,因此是稳定的。术后心率上升、肺水肿征象和突发剧烈头痛都需要及时评估。
答案: C · 红色(立即)
未通过意识状态检查(不能遵从简单指令)的伤员为立即,即使呼吸和灌注可以接受。这可能提示头部损伤或休克。
答案: D · Offload the heels so they do not touch the mattress
Heels are a common pressure ulcer site. Offloading devices or pillows under the calves keep the heels free of the mattress; massage over bony prominences can damage tissue.
答案: C · The forehead can still be wrinkled on the affected side
In a stroke (upper motor neurone lesion), the forehead is usually spared because it has bilateral cortical supply. Bell's palsy (lower motor neurone) weakens the whole side, including the forehead.
答案: C · Report it to the surgical team before surgery
Hypokalemia increases the risk of arrhythmias during anesthesia and can prolong muscle weakness. Abnormal pre-operative results are reported to the surgeon and anesthetist, who decide whether to correct it or delay surgery.核对依据: Hypokalemia · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2025)
答案: D · Gradual replacement of free water over many hours
Older adults have a reduced sense of thirst and easily develop hypernatremia from water loss. Free water is replaced gradually, because lowering sodium too quickly can cause cerebral edema. Hypertonic saline and fluid restriction would make it worse.
答案: D · Use the oral syringe or measuring cup supplied with it
Kitchen spoons are inaccurate and can cause under- or overdosing. Oral syringes in millilitres are the most accurate, and mixing doses into a whole bottle risks the child not getting the full dose.
答案: C · Fluoxetine and its active metabolite have very long half-lives
Norfluoxetine, the active metabolite of fluoxetine, stays in the body for weeks. A long washout is needed before an MAOI to avoid serotonin syndrome.
答案: A · A sudden high potassium level can cause cardiac arrest
Rapid or concentrated IV potassium can cause cardiac arrest. It is given diluted, by infusion, at controlled rates (often with a pump and ECG monitoring for higher rates). Concentrated ampoules are tightly controlled in hospitals because of fatal errors.
答案: A · Higher chest pressure reduces venous return to the heart
PEEP keeps alveoli open and improves oxygenation, but higher intrathoracic pressure impedes venous return, reducing preload and cardiac output, especially in hypovolaemic patients. The team may give fluid or adjust PEEP. High pressures also risk barotrauma.
答案: C · Preventive antibiotics
Close contacts, such as people living in the same household, are offered chemoprophylaxis, for example with ciprofloxacin or rifampicin (rifampin), to clear carriage. Public health teams usually coordinate this.
答案: A · "I will put something between his teeth so he does not bite his tongue."
Nothing should ever be put between the teeth during a seizure. Buccal midazolam is given between the gum and cheek, so the mouth does not need to be forced open. Timing the seizure and following the emergency care plan are correct.
答案: B · Making sure they have their glasses and hearing aids
Delirium prevention includes using glasses and hearing aids, orientation, good sleep, hydration, nutrition, early mobilisation, pain control, avoiding unnecessary sedatives and involving family.
答案: A · Stop the feed and assess the airway and breathing
Coughing and desaturation suggest aspiration or a displaced tube. The feed is stopped, the patient is sat up, oxygen is given as needed, and medical review and checking of tube position follow.
答案: D · Tiredness, pallor and breathlessness
Iron deficiency causes fatigue, pallor, breathlessness, palpitations and sometimes pica. A full blood count and ferritin confirm the diagnosis.
答案: D · Assess the fetal heart rate and check the fluid, and avoid a digital examination
Preterm prelabour rupture of membranes is suspected. The nurse assesses the fetal heart rate and the fluid's colour, amount and odour, and avoids digital examinations, which raise the risk of infection.
答案: A · 就诊中留出一段时间单独与青少年交谈,并说明保密的限度
青少年单独接受访谈时更坦率。应说明,除非存在严重伤害的风险,否则他们所说的内容是保密的。HEADSSS 等框架涵盖家庭、教育、活动、药物、性、自杀和安全。
答案: C · Vesicoureteral reflux
Vesicoureteral reflux allows urine to flow back from the bladder into the ureters and kidneys, causing recurrent UTIs and possible kidney scarring. Children with repeated febrile UTIs are investigated with imaging.
答案: C · Respond respectfully but firmly, and keep the same expectations as for other patients
People with narcissistic personality disorder have a fragile self-esteem beneath the grandiosity. A consistent, respectful and non-defensive approach avoids power struggles and maintains the usual boundaries.
答案: D · Body dysmorphic disorder
Body dysmorphic disorder is a preoccupation with perceived defects in appearance, with repetitive behaviours such as mirror checking or seeking reassurance. It is related to OCD, and cosmetic surgery rarely relieves it.
答案: 19:35
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 100 mL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: D = 166.7 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 8 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 1800 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: D = 15 mcg/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: D = 8 件/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 22.5 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: I = 1620 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 275 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: MFS = 45
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: DBP = 56 mmHg
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
答案: Osm = 284 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: PaCO₂ = 45.5 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: 心房颤动
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 心室颤动
室性节律:室性心动过速是连续三个或以上宽大(0.12 s 或以上)的波群,频率超过 100 次/分,通常为 150–250 次/分,节律规则,没有相关的 P 波。心室颤动是紊乱、不规则的波形,无法辨认 P 波、QRS 波群或 T 波,也没有可计数的频率。心脏停搏是几乎平直的线,没有心室活动;平直线一定要通过检查患者、导联和增益并换一个导联来确认。在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律,心脏停搏则不是。
在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律。这里只是识别练习。
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