感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Which approach suits teaching an older adult with poor eyesight and mild memory problems?
On the day after surgery, a patient's new stoma has turned dark purple. What should the nurse do?
Which technique is correct when collecting a wound culture?
A patient on long-term high-dose corticosteroids asks for the nasal spray influenza vaccine. What should the nurse explain?
A young adult has just started an SSRI antidepressant for major depression. What should the nurse monitor most closely in the first weeks?
A patient taking an MAO inhibitor antidepressant is taught about diet. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A very anxious patient breathes rapidly for a long period. Which change is expected?
一名颅脑损伤患者的 GCS 从 14 分降至 10 分,一侧瞳孔变大且对光反应迟钝。护士应该怎么做?
A woman who is 30 weeks pregnant has a new blood pressure of 152/98 mm Hg. Which urine finding would most support preeclampsia?
A patient with ongoing hemolytic anemia has an HbA1c of 4.6%, but home glucose readings are often 180–220 mg/dL (10–12 mmol/L). What best explains the gap?
An IV site is cool, swollen and pale, and the infusion is running slowly. What should the nurse do?
Lithium taken in the first trimester of pregnancy has been linked to which type of birth defect?
Why must anti-embolism stockings be measured and fitted correctly?
一名 COPD 患者将带着长期氧疗回家。哪项宣教要点对安全最重要?
How does bladder training help urge incontinence?
A kidney transplant recipient has had vomiting and diarrhoea for two days. Why should the transplant team be contacted?
After a percutaneous liver biopsy, how is the patient usually positioned at first?
A surgical patient's MUST score is 3 and the wound is healing slowly. What is the most appropriate action?
一名对风疹无免疫力的产妇在出院前接种疫苗。必须给予哪项建议?
A woman at 16 weeks says she drinks four cups of strong coffee a day. Which response is most appropriate?
哪些迹象提示孩子已准备好开始如厕训练?
一名肾病综合征患儿正在使用大剂量皮质类固醇。对家属来说,哪项指导最重要?
A patient taking sertraline wants to take ibuprofen regularly for arthritis. What should the nurse teach?
An 82-year-old started amitriptyline last week. Which finding is most concerning?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 10:10(24 小时制)。哪个条目是 12 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了½ tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, 1½ fl oz / 果汁, ¼ 杯 / 茶。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一名体重 10 kg 的儿童按 20 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 25 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一袋输液在 500 mL 中含 40000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 1500 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
用滴系数为 10 滴/mL 的输液器在 3 小时内输入 1500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋液体在 500 mL 中含药 250 mg,以 12 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 25 000 单位,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 20 units/kg/h,患者体重 92 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 59 kg 的患者的医嘱为nitroglycerin 20 mcg/min。输液袋中含 25 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 60 mL/h 输注。到 13:00 时已输入 300 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 轻度受限; 潮湿程度: 偶尔潮湿; 活动: 卧床不起; 活动能力: 轻度受限; 营养: 非常差; 摩擦力和剪切力: 无明显问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 8 次/分,SpO₂ 98%吸室内空气,血压 92/56 mmHg,脉搏 58 次/分,清醒,体温 37.9 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
练习数值:Na⁺ 139 mmol/L,葡萄糖 24.6 mmol/L,尿素 3 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.11,PaCO₂ 42 mmHg (5.6 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 13 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
这条 II 导联心电图条带显示窦性心律伴一次停顿。测量 停顿,即跨越停顿的 R–R 间期,单位为秒。
这位患者装有起搏器。请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。点击你的答案。
答案: A · Short sessions, large-print materials and repeating key points
Older learners benefit from short, focused sessions, clear large print, good lighting, repetition and teach-back. Involving family can help but should not replace teaching the patient.
答案: B · Report it urgently, as the stoma may be losing its blood supply
A dusky, purple or black stoma suggests ischaemia or necrosis, which can need surgery. The nurse reports it to the surgical team at once.
答案: C · Clean the wound with sterile saline first, then swab clean tissue
Old exudate contains surface bacteria that may not be causing the infection. The wound is cleaned with sterile saline and then swabbed over clean, viable tissue, ideally before antibiotics start.
答案: C · The nasal spray is a live vaccine, so the injected inactivated vaccine is used instead
The nasal spray influenza vaccine contains live, weakened virus and is avoided in immunosuppressed people. The inactivated injectable vaccine is safe and recommended for them.
答案: C · Thoughts of suicide or self-harm
In the early weeks of antidepressant treatment, especially in young people, suicidal thoughts may increase. Patients and families are taught to report them at once.
答案: D · “I can still eat aged cheese and cured salami.”
MAO inhibitors with tyramine-rich foods, such as aged cheese and cured meats, can cause a hypertensive crisis. Patients avoid these foods, check medicines with a pharmacist and report a severe headache.
答案: A · Respiratory alkalosis from a low PaCO2
Hyperventilation blows off CO2, raising the pH. Symptoms can include tingling of the lips and fingers and lightheadedness.
答案: C · 作为神经科急症立即上报
GCS 下降伴单侧瞳孔散大提示颅内压升高、可能发生脑疝。需要紧急医疗评估和影像学检查。
答案: A · Protein in the urine
Preeclampsia is new hypertension after 20 weeks of pregnancy with proteinuria or other signs of organ involvement, such as low platelets, raised liver enzymes or rising creatinine. Proteinuria reflects damage to the glomerular filter.核对依据: Preeclampsia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: B · Short red cell life span lowers the HbA1c falsely
HbA1c reflects glucose attached to hemoglobin over the red cell life span. In hemolysis, red cells are younger and have less time to bind glucose, so HbA1c is falsely low. Glucose monitoring or other markers are used instead.核对依据: The A1C Test & Diabetes · NIDDK (NIH) (2018); Hemoglobin A1C (HbA1c) Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: D · Stop the infusion, remove the cannula and elevate the limb
These signs suggest infiltration. The infusion is stopped and the cannula removed, the limb is elevated, and a new cannula is placed elsewhere; vesicant drugs need the extravasation protocol.
答案: B · Heart malformations, such as Ebstein's anomaly
First-trimester lithium is associated with a small increased risk of cardiac malformations, classically Ebstein's anomaly. Women of childbearing age need counselling and specialist planning before pregnancy.
答案: B · Poorly fitting stockings can cause pressure damage
Stockings that are the wrong size or that roll down can act like a tourniquet and cause skin and pressure damage. They are measured to the leg, checked daily, and avoided in significant peripheral arterial disease, severe neuropathy or leg skin damage.
答案: B · 绝不吸烟,也不要让明火靠近氧气
吸氧时吸烟是烧伤和致命火灾的主要原因。患者必须使氧气远离火焰和热源,使用水溶性(而非油性)润滑剂,并遵循处方流量,因为无人监督地增加流量可使 CO₂ 潴留加重。
答案: D · The time between voids is slowly increased
In bladder training, the patient follows a schedule and gradually lengthens the time between voids while using urge-suppression techniques. Over weeks, bladder capacity and control improve. Very low fluid intake makes urine concentrated and irritating.
答案: A · The patient may not be absorbing their immunosuppressants
Vomiting and diarrhoea can reduce absorption of immunosuppressants, raising the risk of rejection, and dehydration can harm the graft. Tacrolimus levels can also rise with diarrhoea. The team may check levels and kidney function.
答案: C · On the right side, to press on the puncture site
Lying on the right side presses the liver capsule against the chest wall and helps stop bleeding. The nurse monitors pulse and BP closely for haemorrhage, which is the main risk.
答案: D · Refer to the dietitian, start a nutrition plan and monitor intake
A MUST score of 2 or more indicates high risk of malnutrition. Poor nutrition delays healing, so the nurse refers to the dietitian, starts a care plan with food charts and supplements as advised, and rescreens regularly.
答案: C · 至少 4 周内避免怀孕
风疹疫苗含有减毒活病毒,因此接种后至少 4 周内应避免怀孕。它与母乳喂养并不冲突。
答案: B · Advise limiting caffeine to about 200 mg a day, roughly two cups of coffee
Guidelines advise limiting caffeine to about 200 mg a day in pregnancy because higher intakes are linked to low birth weight and miscarriage. Energy drinks and some teas also contain caffeine.
答案: C · 能保持干爽约 2 小时、表现出兴趣并能遵从简单指令
准备好的迹象包括能控制膀胱数小时、意识到尿布湿了、对马桶感兴趣,以及能够坐、走并遵从简单指令,通常在约 18 个月至 3 岁之间。
答案: D · 及时报告发热或感染征象
使用类固醇的肾病综合征患儿易发生腹膜炎和蜂窝织炎等严重感染。类固醇必须逐渐减量,不能突然停用,大剂量治疗期间应推迟接种活疫苗。
答案: C · The combination increases the risk of bleeding, especially in the stomach, so discuss it with the prescriber
SSRIs reduce serotonin uptake into platelets, which impairs clotting. Combined with NSAIDs, aspirin or anticoagulants, the risk of gastrointestinal bleeding rises.
答案: C · New confusion and difficulty passing urine
Tricyclic antidepressants have strong anticholinergic effects. In older adults these can cause urinary retention, delirium and falls, which need prompt review.
答案: 10:10 AM
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 112.5 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 8 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: R = 18.75 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 83 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:83 滴/分。
答案: D = 6 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 18.4 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 12 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: I = 1790 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 11.7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 11 h 40 min,所以袋子大约在 00:40 输完。
答案: B = 14
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 中
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
答案: Osm = 306 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 合并呼吸性酸中毒
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 停顿 = 1.8 s
窄 QRS 心动过速与停顿:室上性心动过速(SVT)是规则的心动过速,约 150–250 次/分钟,QRS 波群较窄;P 波通常看不到,因为它们隐藏在 QRS 波群或 T 波中。成人静息时的窦性心动过速通常低于约 150 次/分钟,且每个 QRS 前都有可见的 P 波;伴 2:1 传导的心房扑动常在约 150 次/分钟,并显示锯齿波。窦性停搏是指窦房结暂时停止发放冲动:出现既无 P 波也无 QRS 的停顿,其长度不是 P–P 周期的整数倍(恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞)。
停顿中没有出现 P 波,且停顿不是 P–P 周期的整数倍:窦性停搏。恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞。
答案: 起搏心律,夺获失败
起搏心律:起搏器脉冲表现为一条细而垂直的起搏钉样信号。心室钉样信号之后的 QRS 是增宽的(0.12 s 或以上),因为冲动是从导线经心肌传播,而不是经传导系统;右心室起搏时,在 II 导联上通常以负向为主。P 波之前的钉样信号表示心房起搏;双腔(房室)起搏器则表现为心房钉样信号加 P 波,再经过程控的房室延迟,出现心室钉样信号和增宽的 QRS。夺获是指每个钉样信号之后都跟着一次除极。夺获失败是指钉样信号之后没有 P 波或 QRS;感知不良(钉样信号无视患者自己的心搏)和起搏不良(该出现钉样信号时没有)是另外两种典型的故障。
夺获失败:起搏器发放了脉冲,但心脏没有反应。教科书把它视为需要紧急报告的情况,因为患者可能依赖起搏器。
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