感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Why must a respirator such as an FFP3 or N95 mask be fit-tested?
A patient with COPD and a known risk of hypercapnia is acutely breathless with an SpO₂ of 82%. What is correct?
Which nursing care reduces the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia?
A patient with pneumonia has low blood pressure and a raised serum lactate. What does the raised lactate suggest?
A patient has a nasogastric tube on suction. Which task can the nurse delegate to a nursing assistant?
Two hours after a femoral cardiac catheterization, the nurse sees blood spreading from the puncture site. What is the first action?
Which advice should be given to a patient with a new permanent pacemaker?
Three days after bowel surgery, a patient has a distended abdomen, vomiting and absent bowel sounds, without colicky pain. What is most likely?
A patient had a total gastrectomy. Which long-term therapy is needed to prevent anemia?
A patient with heavy alcohol use and a poor diet has a hemoglobin of 10.1 g/dL (101 g/L), an MCV of 110 fL and a low red cell folate. Which explanation fits best?
异丙托溴铵是用于 COPD 的支气管扩张剂。它如何起作用?
Why is vincristine labelled "for intravenous use only – fatal if given by other routes"?
Why must intravenous potassium chloride never be given as a rapid push or undiluted?
A patient with COPD who is known to retain CO₂ arrives on 15 L/min oxygen. They are now drowsy with SpO₂ 99%. What is the most appropriate action?
A patient has acute low back pain with no red flags. Which advice is most appropriate?
A patient with untreated end-stage kidney disease has chest pain that is worse lying flat and better sitting forward. A rub is heard over the heart. What is most likely?
什么是肿瘤溶解综合征?
A patient with long-standing chronic pancreatitis now has weight loss, thirst and passing large volumes of urine. What should the nurse check first?
Parents ask why their baby is having a pulse oximetry check on the right hand and a foot. What is the reason?
A woman has hyperthyroidism in pregnancy. Which finding in the fetus should be monitored?
Which presentation is typical of coeliac disease in a toddler some months after cereals are introduced?
A child with cyanotic heart disease and polycythaemia has a fever and vomiting. Why is dehydration especially dangerous?
一名患者坚持说工作人员在他的食物里下毒。最佳的初始应对方式是什么?
A nurse is teaching a patient who has started haloperidol for schizophrenia. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次小剂量注射的计算得到 0.55611 mL。 本练习的规则是:低于 1 mL 的体积取到最接近的百分之一 mL。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了8 fl oz / 果汁, 2 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, ½ tsp / 止咳糖浆, ¾ 杯 / 茶。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
某患者体重 70 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 15 mg/kg,分 4 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
一名体重 20 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 10 mg/kg,该混悬液每 1 mL 含 40 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 6 小时内输入 250 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋液体在 250 mL 中含药 200 mg,以 25 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 25 000 单位,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 20 units/kg/h,患者体重 58 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dobutamine 250 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 37 mL/h 输注。患者体重 103 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 15:30 开始以 75 mL/h 输注。3 小时后速率改为 80 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张练习图表记录了 GCS 13,其中 E3 和 V4。记录的运动评分M是多少,它描述的是哪种反应?请给出数字。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 团队的目标是平均动脉压至少为 65 mmHg。一位患者的收缩压为 89 mmHg。使用 MAP = (SBP + 2·DBP)/3,仍能使 MAP 达到 65 mmHg 的最低舒张压DBP是多少?
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.17,PaCO₂ 20 mmHg (2.7 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 7 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
在海平面,某练习血气取自吸入 40% 氧气时,显示 PaO₂ 70 mmHg (9.3 kPa),PaCO₂ 47 mmHg (6.3 kPa)。用 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 求A–a 梯度。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这条 II 导联心电图显示二度房室传导阻滞 I 型(文氏现象)。测量未下传 P 波之前最后一个下传搏动的 PR 间期(即最长的 PR),以秒为单位。
答案: A · It only protects if it seals closely to the wearer's face
A respirator filters tiny airborne particles only if air passes through the filter, not around a gap. Fit-testing and a fit-check every time it is worn make sure it seals.
答案: A · Give controlled oxygen, e.g. via a Venturi mask, aiming for 88–92%
Oxygen must not be withheld from a hypoxic patient. In those at risk of hypercapnia it is given in a controlled way to a target of 88–92%, with blood gases checked.
答案: B · Regular oral care to reduce bacteria in the mouth
Oral care, including tooth brushing, reduces the bacteria that can be aspirated around the endotracheal tube. It is part of ventilator care along with head elevation and sedation review.
答案: C · Poor tissue perfusion, a sign of sepsis-related shock
When tissues are poorly perfused, cells switch to anaerobic metabolism and lactate rises. In a patient with infection and hypotension, this points to septic shock and needs urgent treatment.
答案: D · Giving mouth care
Mouth care is routine and important because the patient cannot eat or drink. Checking position, irrigating the tube and assessing drainage need nursing skills and judgement.
答案: D · Apply firm, direct pressure just above the puncture site
Direct manual pressure just above the puncture site compresses the femoral artery and stops bleeding. The patient keeps the leg straight, and the nurse checks vital signs and distal pulses and informs the provider.
答案: A · Tell staff about the pacemaker before any MRI scan or procedure
Patients carry a device card and tell staff before MRI, surgery with diathermy or similar procedures. Arm movement on the pacemaker side is limited only for a short period after insertion.
答案: A · Paralytic ileus
Paralytic ileus is a temporary loss of gut movement, common after abdominal surgery. Bowel sounds are absent, unlike mechanical obstruction where they are often high-pitched. Management includes nil by mouth, NG decompression, fluids and correcting electrolytes.
答案: B · Lifelong vitamin B12 replacement
Intrinsic factor from the stomach is needed to absorb vitamin B12 in the ileum. After a total gastrectomy, B12 must be replaced for life, usually by injection, to prevent macrocytic anemia and nerve damage.核对依据: Vitamin B12 or folate deficiency anaemia - Causes · NHS (2023); Vitamin B12 deficiency anemia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: C · Folate deficiency, made worse by a direct alcohol effect
Poor diet and alcohol reduce folate intake and absorption, causing macrocytic anemia, and alcohol itself also raises the MCV. Iron deficiency and thalassemia cause small cells. Folate is replaced after B12 deficiency is excluded, and thiamine is also commonly given.核对依据: Folate-deficiency anemia - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: A · 阻断气道平滑肌中的毒蕈碱受体
异丙托溴铵是一种吸入性抗胆碱药。它阻断迷走神经介导的支气管收缩和黏液分泌,对 COPD 尤其有用。
答案: C · Accidental intrathecal injection causes fatal ascending neurotoxicity
Vincristine given intrathecally causes ascending paralysis and death. To prevent this, it is usually given in a small IV bag rather than a syringe and kept separate from intrathecal drugs.
答案: D · A sudden high potassium level can cause cardiac arrest
Rapid or concentrated IV potassium can cause cardiac arrest. It is given diluted, by infusion, at controlled rates (often with a pump and ECG monitoring for higher rates). Concentrated ampoules are tightly controlled in hospitals because of fatal errors.
答案: A · Reduce the oxygen to aim for 88–92% and get a blood gas
In patients at risk of hypercapnic respiratory failure, excess oxygen can raise PaCO₂ and cause drowsiness and acidosis. Oxygen is stepped down to a target of 88–92% (for example via a Venturi mask), not stopped abruptly, which could cause dangerous hypoxaemia. An arterial blood gas guides further treatment, which may include NIV.
答案: B · Stay as active as possible and use simple pain relief
Most acute low back pain improves within weeks. Staying active, simple analgesia and gradual return to normal activities help recovery. Imaging is usually not needed without red flags.
答案: A · Uraemic pericarditis, which usually needs urgent dialysis
Uraemic toxins can cause pericarditis, with positional chest pain and a friction rub. It is an indication for urgent dialysis and can lead to a pericardial effusion and tamponade.
答案: C · 癌细胞迅速分解引起的代谢急症
肿瘤细胞迅速死亡(通常在急性白血病或高级别淋巴瘤等快速生长的癌症开始治疗后)会释放钾、磷酸盐和核酸(转化为尿酸)。这可引起 AKI 和心律失常。
答案: C · Capillary blood glucose
Destruction of islet cells in chronic pancreatitis can cause diabetes (type 3c). Thirst, polyuria and weight loss suggest hyperglycaemia, which is checked straight away.
答案: D · To screen for critical congenital heart disease
Pulse oximetry screening compares oxygen saturation in the right hand (pre-ductal) and a foot (post-ductal). A low reading or a significant difference can indicate critical congenital heart disease.
答案: D · Fetal tachycardia and poor growth
In Graves' disease, maternal antibodies can cross the placenta and cause fetal hyperthyroidism, with tachycardia, goitre and growth restriction. Antithyroid drugs also cross the placenta, so the fetus is monitored.
答案: B · Chronic diarrhoea, a swollen abdomen, irritability and poor weight gain
Gluten damages the small bowel lining in coeliac disease, causing malabsorption with chronic diarrhoea, bulky stools, abdominal distension, irritability and faltering growth. Diagnosis uses blood antibody tests and often a bowel biopsy while still eating gluten.
答案: C · It makes the blood even thicker and raises the risk of stroke and thrombosis
Polycythaemic blood is already viscous; dehydration concentrates it further and increases the risk of cerebral thrombosis and stroke. Fluid intake is monitored closely and IV fluids may be needed during illness.
答案: D · 承认他的恐惧,不对该信念进行争论,并把重点放在基于现实的话题上
争论会强化妄想并损害信任,附和也会强化妄想。应回应其情绪(恐惧),坚持现实,并提供实际的选择,如密封或包装好的食物。
答案: B · "I can stop taking it as soon as the voices go away."
Antipsychotics are continued after symptoms improve, because stopping them early is a major cause of relapse. Any change should be discussed with the prescriber.
答案: x = 0.56 mL
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: V = 452.5 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 262.5 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 5 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 10 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:10 滴/分。
答案: D = 20 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 11.6 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 6 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 880 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 6.4 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 6 h 26 min,所以袋子大约在 21:56 输完。
答案: M = 6
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: DBP = 53 mmHg
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
答案: 部分代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: A–a 梯度 = 156.4 mmHg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 心房颤动
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 最长的 PR = 0.36 s
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
PR 最大的增幅出现在一组的第一个和第二个搏动之间;之后的增幅较小,这就是暂停之前 R–R 间期缩短的原因。
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