感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
During a manual blood pressure measurement in an adult, which point is usually recorded as the diastolic pressure?
Which feature suggests that a sore area is a moisture lesion rather than a pressure ulcer?
患者的血液意外溅入护士眼睛后,护士应怎么做?
一名患者因急性腹泻入院,怀疑为艰难梭菌(C. difficile)感染。检测结果尚未出来。接触传播预防应何时开始?
RN 将哪项任务委派给 LPN/LVN 最为恰当?
After surgery, a patient who has taken long-term steroids becomes hypotensive and weak, and the blood pressure does not rise with IV fluids. Which problem should the nurse suspect?
When should discharge planning usually begin?
Which sign is often a late finding in hypovolaemic shock in a young, previously fit adult?
When blood is drawn from a central venous catheter, why is a small volume of blood usually discarded first, according to policy?
A patient on a stable dose of levothyroxine now has a TSH of 9.8 mIU/L. She recently started taking her calcium and iron supplements with her morning levothyroxine. What is the most likely explanation?
阿哌沙班和利伐沙班是直接抑制什么的抗凝药?
Why should a dose never be written as "5.0 mg" on a medication order?
A patient's blood pressure is 120/60 mmHg. What is the approximate mean arterial pressure?
心肌梗死三周后,一名患者出现发热、胸膜性胸痛(前倾时减轻)和心包摩擦音。最可能的诊断是什么?
A nurse is teaching a patient going home after a mild concussion. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
The nurse has four patients with diabetes. Which one needs to be seen first?
Why are carbohydrate drinks often given before surgery in enhanced recovery programmes?
A patient with haematemesis becomes drowsy and starts to vomit blood again. What is the immediate priority?
A woman at 26 weeks asks which symptom she should report straight away. Which one is a danger sign?
A multiparous woman arrives with strong contractions and the baby is born within an hour of their onset. What should the nurse monitor closely afterwards?
哪名儿童一般不应接种 MMR 等活疫苗?
A baby born to a mother who used opioids in pregnancy has a high-pitched cry, tremors, sneezing and poor feeding. Which plan is best?
How should a patient with anorexia nervosa be weighed in hospital?
A patient says, "My boss didn't say hello this morning, so she must think I'm useless." Which cognitive distortion is shown, and what is a helpful nursing response?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者身高 182 cm。按 1 in = 2.54 cm,求以英寸表示的身高h。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液½ tsp,每 6 小时一次,共 10 天。混悬液每瓶 150 mL。按1 tsp = 5 mL,必须提供多少整瓶N才能完成疗程?
某患者体重 80 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 7.5 mg/kg,分 2 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
一袋输液在 500 mL 中含 40000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 1200 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
医嘱要求在 12 小时内输入 1500 mL。4 小时后你发现袋中还剩 1100 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
一组输液以 42 滴/分的速度经 60 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 200 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 64 kg 的患者推注肝素 70 units/kg。药瓶规格为 1 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dopamine 800 mg、容量 500 mL 的输液以 21 mL/h 输注。患者体重 51 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 1000 mL 的输液于 17:00 开始以 120 mL/h 输注。4 小时后速率改为 150 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 是; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 拐杖、手杖或助行器; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 受损; 精神状态: 高估或忘记自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名练习用新生儿出生后 1 分钟时:躯干粉红,手脚青紫,心率 85 次/分,刺激时做鬼脸,四肢略有屈曲,呼吸缓慢、不规则,哭声微弱。 为 Apgar 评分并点击该评分的解读。
练习数值:Na⁺ 139 mmol/L,葡萄糖 21.1 mmol/L,尿素 19.3 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
练习数值:Na⁺ 140,Cl⁻ 111,HCO₃⁻ 15 mmol/L,白蛋白 24 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
测量这条 II 导联心电图上的QT 间期,以秒为单位。
这条 II 导联心电图显示房室传导阻滞,所以心房和心室以不同的频率搏动。QRS 波群是规则的:求出心室率(单位:次/分,1500 法,取整数)。
答案: B · When the sounds disappear completely
The first clear sound marks the systolic pressure; in adults the point at which the sounds disappear (phase 5) is recorded as diastolic.
答案: B · Diffuse, irregular redness in a skin fold, not over a bone
Moisture lesions are usually superficial, diffuse and irregular, often in the natal cleft or skin folds. Pressure ulcers are typically over bony prominences and may have necrotic tissue.
答案: D · 立即用大量清水或生理盐水冲洗眼睛,然后上报
应立即用大量清水或生理盐水冲洗黏膜,例如在洗眼站。暴露应立即上报,以便评估风险并考虑暴露后治疗。
答案: A · 立即开始,无需等待检测结果
一旦怀疑就应开始采取预防措施,因为在检测结果待出期间患者就可能传播芽孢。患者应安置在单间并采取接触传播预防,同时使用肥皂和水洗手。
答案: C · 为病情稳定的患者置入留置导尿管
为病情稳定的患者置入导尿管是常在 LPN/LVN 范围内的技能。入院评估、初次教育和开始输血通常仍由 RN 负责。具体范围因州和国家而异。
答案: D · Adrenal crisis from steroid withdrawal
Patients on long-term steroids may not make enough cortisol to cope with surgical stress. Refractory hypotension suggests adrenal crisis, which needs urgent IV hydrocortisone as prescribed.
答案: D · On or soon after admission
Discharge planning starts early so that needs such as equipment, care packages, medicines and follow-up are ready when the patient is fit to leave.
答案: B · A fall in blood pressure
Young adults compensate for blood loss with tachycardia and vasoconstriction, so blood pressure may stay normal until a large volume is lost. Hypotension is therefore a late and serious sign.
答案: D · To avoid diluting the sample with flush or infusion fluid
Central lines contain flush solution or infused fluids, which can dilute the sample or add glucose, heparin or electrolytes. Infusions are paused and an initial volume is discarded (or reinfused per policy) before the sample is drawn; then the line is flushed.
答案: D · The supplements are reducing levothyroxine absorption
Calcium, iron and antacids bind levothyroxine in the gut and reduce absorption, so the TSH rises. Levothyroxine is taken on an empty stomach, usually 30–60 minutes before breakfast, separated from these supplements by about 4 hours.
答案: D · Xa 因子
阿哌沙班和利伐沙班是直接 Xa 因子抑制剂。达比加群直接抑制凝血酶,华法林阻断维生素 K 循环,氯吡格雷阻断 P2Y12。
答案: A · The decimal point may be missed, and the dose read as 50 mg
Trailing zeros (5.0) and missing leading zeros (.5) are well-known causes of tenfold errors. Safe practice is to write 5 mg and 0.5 mg.
答案: A · 80 mmHg
MAP ≈ diastolic + (systolic − diastolic) ÷ 3 = 60 + 60 ÷ 3 = 80 mmHg. The heart spends longer in diastole, so MAP is closer to the diastolic value. A MAP of at least about 65 mmHg is a common target for organ perfusion.
答案: B · 心肌梗死后(Dressler)综合征
Dressler 综合征是心肌梗死数周后发生的免疫介导性心包炎,表现为发热、坐起前倾时缓解的胸膜性疼痛和摩擦音。在再灌注时代现已少见。新的梗死引起的缺血性疼痛不随体位改变,夹层引起放射到背部的撕裂样疼痛。
答案: B · "A few drinks tonight will help me relax and sleep."
After a head injury, alcohol and sedatives should be avoided because they can mask drowsiness and confusion. A responsible adult should stay with the patient, and worsening headache, repeated vomiting, confusion or drowsiness mean they must return.
答案: C · A patient with a glucose of 2.8 mmol/L (50 mg/dL) who is sweaty and confused
Hypoglycaemia with confusion can rapidly lead to seizures and loss of consciousness, so it is treated at once. A moderately high glucose without symptoms, diet questions and routine tests can wait.
答案: D · To reduce insulin resistance and improve recovery
Carbohydrate loading the night before and a few hours before surgery reduces thirst, hunger and postoperative insulin resistance. It is not used in every patient, for example some with diabetes.
答案: A · Turn the patient onto their side to protect the airway
A drowsy patient who is vomiting may aspirate blood. Positioning on the side and suctioning protect the airway while help is called; large-bore IV access, bloods and fluid resuscitation follow.
答案: C · Sudden swelling of the face and hands with a headache
Sudden facial or hand swelling, severe headache, visual changes and upper abdominal pain can signal pre-eclampsia. Mild ankle oedema, white discharge and heartburn are common discomforts.
答案: A · Uterine tone, bleeding and newborn injury
Precipitous labour increases the risk of cervical and perineal tears, uterine atony and haemorrhage, and of newborn injuries such as bruising or intracranial bleeding.
答案: A · 严重免疫抑制的儿童,例如化疗期间
活疫苗通常禁用于严重免疫抑制者和孕妇。轻微疾病和抗生素治疗不是禁忌证。
答案: D · Low-stimulation care, swaddling, small frequent feeds and a withdrawal scoring tool
Neonatal abstinence (withdrawal) is managed first with calm, low-stimulation care, swaddling, frequent feeds and support for parents, with regular scoring to guide any drug treatment. Naloxone is avoided because it can trigger acute withdrawal and seizures.
答案: D · At the same time, on the same scale, in a gown, after emptying the bladder
Standardised weighing gives reliable trends. Patients may drink large amounts of water or hide objects to increase their weight, so consistent conditions and a gown are used.
答案: D · Mind reading; ask what other reasons there might be for the boss's behaviour
Mind reading is assuming others' thoughts without evidence. Exploring alternative explanations, such as the boss being busy, helps the patient test the thought and reduce distress.
答案: h = 71.7 in
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: N = 1
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: D = 300 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 15 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 137.5 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: t = 4.8 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: V = 4.5 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 11 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 1170 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 7.5 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 7 h 28 min,所以袋子大约在 00:28 输完。
答案: MFS = 75
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 中度异常
Apgar 评分:五项体征,每项评 0、1 或 2 分,在出生后 1 分钟和 5 分钟检查。外观(肤色):青紫或苍白 0 分,躯干粉红、四肢青紫 1 分,全身粉红 2 分。脉搏:无 0 分,低于 100 次/分 1 分,100 次/分或以上 2 分。反射(反射应激性):无 0 分,做鬼脸 1 分,哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏 2 分。肌张力(活动):松软 0 分,略有屈曲 1 分,活动活跃 2 分。呼吸:无 0 分,缓慢或不规则、哭声微弱 1 分,良好、哭声响亮 2 分。总分 7–10 为令人放心,4–6 为中度异常,0–3 为低。
答案: Osm = 318 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: AGc = 18 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: QT = 0.38 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
粗略的规则:在正常心率下,QT 应小于 R–R 间期的一半(此处 R–R = 0.68 s)。
答案: 心室率 = 38 bpm
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
2:1 房室传导阻滞:每隔一个 P 波不下传,所以心房率是心室率的两倍。
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