感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Why should the same pain scale be used each time a patient's pain is assessed?
一处压力性损伤的创面基底完全被腐肉和黑色焦痂覆盖。应如何分类?
Which nursing care reduces the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia?
A patient’s white cell differential shows a raised eosinophil count. Which cause is most consistent with this finding?
Which patient on an addiction unit should the nurse see first?
A patient has a potassium of 7.0 mEq/L with peaked T waves. Several drugs are prescribed. Which one is usually given first to protect the heart?
What should a patient be told before using sublingual glyceryl trinitrate (GTN, nitroglycerin) spray for angina?
Why are patients with nephrotic syndrome at increased risk of blood clots?
A patient is on an IV insulin infusion protocol in the ICU. How often is the blood glucose usually checked?
A patient with a serum albumin of 1.9 g/dL (19 g/L) has signs of phenytoin toxicity, although the total phenytoin level is in the usual range. What is the most likely explanation?
Why should a patient rinse the mouth after using an inhaled corticosteroid?
A patient has SIADH with mild hyponatraemia and no neurological symptoms. What is usually the first-line treatment?
A patient uses a glyceryl trinitrate (nitroglycerin) patch for angina. Why is it usually removed for several hours each day?
Hours after surgery to restore blood flow to an ischaemic leg, the patient has severe calf pain that is worse when the toes are moved passively, and the calf feels tense. What should the nurse suspect?
卒中静脉溶栓后的最初 24 小时内,哪些观察最重要?
A patient with a new arm fistula says their hand on that side is cold, pale and painful, especially during dialysis. What is the concern?
Why does a patient need lifelong vitamin B12 injections after total gastrectomy?
A nurse teaches a patient to self-inject low molecular weight heparin at home. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A woman with hypothyroidism becomes pregnant. What usually happens to her levothyroxine needs?
On abdominal palpation, the nurse feels a hard, round, movable mass in the fundus, and the fetal heart is heard above the umbilicus. What does this suggest?
Why should a child with rubella avoid contact with pregnant women?
An infant with a large VSD now breathes faster, sweats during feeds and has gained 300 g overnight with puffy eyelids. What does this most likely indicate?
对于关于早餐的提问,一名患者回答:“鸡蛋来自母鸡,母鸡住在农场,我叔叔有个农场,他开一辆红色拖拉机……”却始终没有回答问题。这称为什么?
一名患者在出现暴力行为后刚被施以身体约束。哪项评估是最高优先级?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 03:50(24 小时制)。哪个条目是 12 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注的给药速率为 5 mg/h。请把这个剂量速率D用 mcg/min 表示。取到一位小数。
一支肾上腺素安瓿标示为 1:1000(1 mg/mL)。医嘱为 0.3 mg 肌内注射(IM),用于严重过敏反应。你应抽取多少体积 V?
处方剂量为 0.28 mg。安瓿每 mL 含 1000 微克。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 5 小时内输入 1000 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。
一组输液以 40 滴/分的速度经 60 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 450 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 25 000 单位,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 15 units/kg/h,患者体重 65 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dobutamine 500 mg,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 7.5 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 52 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 11:00 开始以 125 mL/h 输注。2 小时后速率改为 75 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 非常受限; 潮湿程度: 非常潮湿; 活动: 卧床不起; 活动能力: 完全不能活动; 营养: 非常差; 摩擦力和剪切力: 有问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 扶着家具; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 受损; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。使用分界值 0–24 低,25–44 中度,45 或以上高,点击跌倒风险等级。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 6 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.19,PaCO₂ 19 mmHg (2.5 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 7 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
测量这条 II 导联心电图上的QT 间期,以秒为单位。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房与心室之间存在传导问题。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
答案: C · So scores can be compared to see whether pain is improving
Using one tool consistently lets the team see trends and judge whether treatment works. The tool chosen should suit the patient's age and ability to communicate.
答案: B · 不可分期,因为看不到深度
当腐肉或焦痂遮盖创面基底时,真实深度未知,因此在能够看到基底之前,该损伤记录为不可分期。
答案: A · Regular oral care to reduce bacteria in the mouth
Oral care, including tooth brushing, reduces the bacteria that can be aspirated around the endotracheal tube. It is part of ventilator care along with head elevation and sedation review.
答案: A · An allergic reaction or a parasitic infection
Eosinophils rise in allergic conditions such as asthma and drug reactions and in parasitic infections. Acute bacterial infection mainly raises neutrophils, and viral infection often raises lymphocytes.
答案: D · Last drink two days ago; now shaking, sweating, heart rate 124/min and seeing insects
Hallucinations, tremor, sweating and tachycardia two to three days after the last drink suggest severe withdrawal and possible delirium tremens, which can be fatal. This patient needs prompt assessment and treatment.
答案: B · IV calcium gluconate
IV calcium stabilizes the cardiac cell membranes within minutes and is given first when hyperkalemia changes the ECG. Insulin with glucose, binders and diuretics then lower the potassium.
答案: B · Sit down before using it, as it can cause dizziness and low blood pressure
GTN causes vasodilation, which can lead to headache, flushing, dizziness and hypotension. Patients should sit, and seek emergency help if the pain does not settle after the advised doses.
答案: A · Anticoagulant proteins are lost in the urine and clotting factors rise
Loss of proteins such as antithrombin in the urine, together with increased hepatic production of clotting factors, creates a hypercoagulable state. Some patients need anticoagulation.
答案: A · About every hour
IV insulin acts quickly and has a short half-life, so glucose is usually checked hourly (or as the protocol specifies) and the rate adjusted. This reduces the risk of hypoglycemia and keeps glucose in the target range.
答案: A · Low albumin raises the free (active) fraction of phenytoin
Phenytoin is highly protein bound, and only the free drug is active. When albumin is low, more phenytoin is free, so toxicity can occur with a "normal" total level. A free phenytoin level or a corrected level helps.核对依据: Phenytoin · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2023); Antiepileptic Drug Monitoring · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2025)
答案: B · To reduce the risk of oral thrush (candidiasis) and hoarseness
Steroid left in the mouth and throat suppresses local immunity and can cause candidiasis and a hoarse voice. Rinsing and spitting, and using a spacer, reduce this risk.
答案: D · Fluid restriction
In SIADH, excess ADH makes the kidneys retain water. Restricting fluid intake raises sodium gradually; hypertonic saline is kept for severe symptomatic cases, and hypotonic fluids and desmopressin would worsen it.
答案: B · A nitrate-free interval prevents tolerance
Continuous nitrate use leads to tolerance within days. A daily nitrate-free period (often overnight, when angina is least likely) keeps the drug effective. Patients are taught to rotate patch sites.
答案: D · Compartment syndrome from reperfusion swelling
When blood flow returns to ischaemic muscle, swelling can raise pressure in a fascial compartment. Pain out of proportion and pain on passive stretch are early signs; pulses may remain until late. It is reported urgently, as fasciotomy may be needed. The limb is kept at heart level, not raised high.
答案: B · 频繁的神经系统检查和血压
溶栓后应频繁进行神经系统观察、血压测量和出血检查。新出现的头痛、呕吐、GCS 下降或血压升高可能提示出血。通常 24 小时内避免使用抗血小板药和抗凝药。
答案: B · Steal syndrome, which needs urgent review
In steal syndrome, the fistula diverts arterial blood from the hand, causing ischaemia: coldness, pallor, pain, numbness or weakness. It must be reported urgently, because severe cases can cause tissue loss.
答案: C · Intrinsic factor from the stomach is no longer made
Parietal cells of the stomach make intrinsic factor, which is needed for B12 absorption in the terminal ileum. Without it, pernicious-type anaemia and neuropathy develop unless B12 is given by injection.
答案: A · "I'll rub the area afterwards to spread the medicine."
Rubbing the site after LMWH increases bruising and is avoided. Rotating sites, reporting bleeding and safe sharps disposal are correct.
答案: C · They usually rise, so levels are checked early
Levothyroxine needs usually rise in pregnancy. Thyroid function is checked as soon as pregnancy is confirmed and regularly afterwards, because untreated hypothyroidism can affect fetal brain development.
答案: C · A breech presentation
A hard, round, ballotable head in the fundus means the buttocks are presenting. The fetal heart in breech presentations is usually heard above the umbilicus.
答案: A · Rubella in early pregnancy can cause serious birth defects
Congenital rubella syndrome can cause deafness, eye defects such as cataracts, heart defects and developmental problems, especially when infection occurs early in pregnancy. MMR vaccination protects against this.
答案: D · Worsening heart failure with fluid retention
A sudden overnight weight gain with periorbital oedema, tachypnoea and sweating suggests fluid retention from worsening heart failure. Daily weights on the same scale are a key way to monitor fluid status in these infants.
答案: B · 离题(切题障碍,tangentiality)
在离题中,说话者越说越远,始终说不到重点。在病理性赘述中,有许多不必要的细节,但说话者最终会回答问题。语词杂拌是毫无意义的词语混杂。
答案: D · 呼吸和循环,并持续观察
约束期间的死亡往往由呼吸问题引起。关于原因的复盘要等患者平静后再进行。持续监测呼吸、气道、循环、皮肤和精神状态至关重要,一旦安全就应立即解除约束。
答案: 3:50 AM
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: D = 83.3 mcg/min
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 0.3 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
美国的标签现在标示 mg/mL(1 mg/mL = 1:1000;0.1 mg/mL = 1:10 000)。切勿静脉推注 1 mg/mL 的肾上腺素。
答案: V = 0.28 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: R = 50 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: t = 11.3 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 19.5 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 11.7 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 1000 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 5.3 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 5 h 20 min,所以袋子大约在 16:20 输完。
答案: B = 8
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 高风险
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: PaCO₂ = 17 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 适当的代偿
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: QT = 0.38 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
粗略的规则:在正常心率下,QT 应小于 R–R 间期的一半(此处 R–R = 0.60 s)。
答案: 三度(完全性)房室传导阻滞
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
II 型和三度阻滞可能突然进展,所以教科书将它们列为比 I 型更严重。
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