感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Why should reddened skin over a bony area not be massaged?
A healthcare assistant (nursing assistant) has recorded a blood pressure of 82/50 mmHg during routine observations but did not report it. What should the registered nurse do first?
患者在床上时,其病房里的垃圾桶起了小火。护士首先应做什么?
A patient takes medicines prescribed by several providers. Which advice best reduces the risk of medication errors at home?
A patient with angina is taught to use sublingual nitroglycerin (GTN). Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A chemical cleaning fluid splashes into a patient’s eye. What should the nurse do first?
Which blood result often rises in an upper GI bleed because blood is digested in the gut?
Which route and site are recommended for the first dose of adrenaline (epinephrine) in anaphylaxis on a ward?
一名患者接受皮下注射依诺肝素(一种低分子量肝素)。关于监测,哪项说法是正确的?
患者早晨服药后 2 小时抽取的血锂水平为 1.0 mEq/L,开医嘱者打算增加剂量。护士应指出什么?
A woman taking the combined pill should seek care urgently for which symptom?
An older patient on amlodipine develops ankle swelling and is prescribed furosemide. She then becomes dizzy and falls. What does this sequence illustrate?
A patient with chest pain has a first troponin result within the normal range one hour after the pain started. Why is a repeat test arranged?
一名限制每天液体 1.5 L 的心力衰竭患者抱怨口渴难耐。哪项措施最恰当?
Which measure best detects a decline in breathing in a patient with Guillain–Barré syndrome?
A patient with stable epilepsy on phenytoin started a new medicine last week. They now have nystagmus, an unsteady gait and slurred speech. What should the nurse do?
What is anticipatory nausea in chemotherapy?
一名肠梗阻患者出现持续剧烈疼痛(不再是绞痛)、发热、心率 120 次/分,以及腹部强直、压痛。这提示什么?
哪项表现提示是产后抑郁而不是产后忧郁?
A preterm baby is being prepared for discharge. Which statement by the parents shows understanding of kangaroo (skin-to-skin) care?
A child is sent home after a minor head injury. Which sign should parents report straight away?
A 2-week-old suddenly starts vomiting bright green fluid. What should the nurse do?
一名患者使用“glimpotrance”这个词,并解释说它的意思是控制他思想的力量。这是什么?
A woman who takes lithium for bipolar disorder tells the nurse she would like to become pregnant. What is the best response?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名新生儿体重 7 lb 3 oz。按 1 lb = 16 oz 和 1 kg = 2.2 lb,求以千克表示的体重m。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注的给药速率为 4 mg/h。请把这个剂量速率D用 mcg/min 表示。取到一位小数。
一名体重 8 kg 的儿童按 5 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 20 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一名体重 8 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 20 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 100 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求以 75 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一袋液体在 50 mL 中含药 400 mg,以 12 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 101 kg 的患者推注肝素 80 units/kg。药瓶规格为 5 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dopamine 400 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 13 mL/h 输注。患者体重 104 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 1000 mL 的输液于 10:30 开始以 150 mL/h 输注。3 小时后速率改为 100 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张练习图表记录了 GCS 14,其中 E4 和 V4。记录的运动评分M是多少,它描述的是哪种反应?请给出数字。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 16 次/分,SpO₂ 93%正在补充吸氧,血压 124/74 mmHg,脉搏 130 次/分,清醒,体温 37.5 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
练习数值:Na⁺ 149 mmol/L,葡萄糖 30.4 mmol/L,尿素 12.3 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.34,PaCO₂ 31 mmHg (4.1 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 16 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房扑动。每个 QRS 波群对应多少个每个 QRS 对应的扑动波(n:1 传导中的 n)?
依次按五个步骤解读这条 II 导联心电图:心率、节律、P 波、PR 间期、QRS 时限。你在哪一步发现第一个异常?点击它。
答案: C · Massage can damage the deeper tissues further
Massaging red, pressure-damaged areas can tear small blood vessels and worsen tissue damage. Pressure is relieved by repositioning instead.
答案: B · Assess the patient straight away
A low blood pressure may mean deterioration, so the nurse assesses the patient at once and escalates if needed. Feedback to the assistant and reporting follow afterwards.
答案: B · 把患者从紧急危险中转移出来
首先是救援:把患者从火场转移开。然后拉响警报、关门控制火势,并在安全时灭火。打开窗户会给火焰提供氧气。
答案: B · Keep one up-to-date list of all medicines and use one pharmacy where possible
A single complete medication list and one pharmacy allow interactions and duplicates to be detected. The list, including over-the-counter drugs and supplements, is shown at every visit.
答案: D · “I will take five tablets one after the other before I call for help.”
Action plans differ slightly: US guidance says to call emergency services if pain is not better 5 minutes after the first dose, while UK guidance allows a second dose after 5 minutes and a 999 call if pain persists 5 minutes later. Taking many doses in a row delays care and can cause severe hypotension.
答案: D · Flush the eye with plenty of water or saline straight away
Chemical eye injuries are treated by immediate, continuous irrigation with large amounts of water or saline. Delay, rubbing or a patch allows more damage.
答案: A · Urea (blood urea nitrogen)
Blood proteins digested in the upper GI tract are absorbed and converted to urea, so urea rises out of proportion to creatinine. Urea is part of the Glasgow-Blatchford bleeding score.
答案: B · Intramuscular injection into the anterolateral thigh
IM adrenaline into the outer thigh is absorbed quickly and is the first-line route. IV adrenaline is reserved for experienced specialists with full monitoring because of the risk of arrhythmias.
答案: B · 不常规监测 aPTT;而是检查血小板和肾功能
依诺肝素的效果可预测,因此不用 aPTT 来监测。血小板计数有助于发现肝素诱导的血小板减少症,肾功能也很重要,因为该药经肾脏清除。在妊娠、肥胖或肾病时可使用抗 Xa 水平。
答案: D · 样本是在服药后太早采集的,因此不是有效的水平
血锂水平的标准采血时间是末次服药后约 12 小时,通常在早晨服药前。服药后 2 小时的样本捕获的是吸收峰值,与目标范围不可比,因此不应据此改变剂量。
答案: C · A painful, swollen calf or sudden chest pain
Combined hormonal contraception increases the risk of venous thromboembolism and, rarely, stroke. Leg pain or swelling, chest pain, breathlessness, severe headache or vision changes need urgent assessment.
答案: D · A prescribing cascade
In a prescribing cascade, an adverse effect of one drug is mistaken for a new condition and treated with another drug, which brings new risks. Amlodipine oedema does not respond well to diuretics; reviewing the original drug is better.
答案: C · Troponin may take a few hours to rise after muscle damage
Troponin starts to rise within hours of myocardial injury, so a very early result can be normal. Protocols use serial measurements at set intervals, with the ECG and clinical picture, to diagnose or exclude MI. A rising pattern supports acute injury.
答案: D · 口腔护理、计量的冰块和分散在全天的液体
把液体分散在全天、使用小杯、含冰块(计入总量)、嚼无糖口香糖和定期口腔护理,有助于患者耐受液体限制。咸的食物会增加口渴和液体潴留。
答案: C · Regular forced vital capacity measurements
In Guillain–Barré syndrome, the breathing muscles weaken progressively. A falling vital capacity shows this early, long before oxygen saturation drops. A weak cough and difficulty counting in one breath are other warning signs.
答案: A · Suspect phenytoin toxicity, hold the next dose and ask for a drug level
Nystagmus, ataxia and slurred speech are classic signs of phenytoin toxicity. Interacting drugs can raise its level. The nurse holds the dose, ensures safety and escalates for a level and a review. A new neurological deficit still needs medical assessment.
答案: D · Nausea triggered by reminders of treatment before it is given
Anticipatory nausea is a conditioned response after previous poorly controlled nausea, triggered by sights or smells linked to treatment. Good antiemetic control from the first cycle helps prevent it; relaxation techniques and anxiolytics may help.
答案: C · 绞窄或穿孔,需要紧急外科评估
疼痛从绞痛变为持续性疼痛,伴发热、心动过速、腹膜刺激征或乳酸升高,提示缺血(绞窄)或穿孔。这是外科急症。机械性梗阻禁用泻药。
答案: A · 情绪低落和兴趣丧失持续超过 2 周并影响日常生活
产后抑郁持续超过 2 周,并妨碍照顾自己或婴儿。需要进行筛查(如使用爱丁堡产后抑郁量表)并转诊。
答案: B · "Holding her on my bare chest keeps her warm."
Kangaroo care places the baby in a nappy against the parent's bare chest. It stabilises temperature, heart rate and breathing, supports breastfeeding and bonding, and is beneficial for preterm babies.
答案: C · Repeated vomiting
Parents should seek urgent help for repeated vomiting, increasing drowsiness or difficulty waking, worsening headache, confusion, seizures, unequal pupils or weakness. A small bump and mild local pain are common.
答案: C · Treat it as a surgical emergency and get urgent medical review
Bilious vomiting in a newborn suggests bowel obstruction, such as malrotation with volvulus, which can cut off the blood supply to the gut within hours. It needs immediate surgical assessment.
答案: A · 新语症
新语症是自创的词,或被赋予私人含义的真实词汇,是思维紊乱的征象。
答案: C · "Please don't stop your lithium on your own. Let's arrange for you to plan this with your prescriber before you conceive."
Lithium in early pregnancy is linked to cardiac malformations, but stopping it abruptly greatly raises the risk of relapse. Pre-conception planning with the prescriber balances these risks.
答案: m = 3.27 kg
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 66.7 mcg/min
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 2 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 8 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 75 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
使用微滴输液器(60 gtt/mL)时,gtt/min 等于 mL/h。
答案: D = 96 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: V = 1.6 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 3.3 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 635 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 8.5 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 8 h 30 min,所以袋子大约在 19:00 输完。
答案: M = 6
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 中
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
答案: Osm = 341 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 适当的代偿
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 每个 QRS 对应的扑动波 = 4
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: QRS 时限
每条心电图的五个步骤:1. 心率(300 法或 1500 法;若不规则则用 6 秒法);2. 节律:R–R 间期是否相等;3. P 波:是否存在、在 II 导联直立、每个 QRS 之前各有一个且形态一致;4. PR 间期:0.12–0.20 s 且恒定;5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s。五个步骤做完之后才命名节律。正常窦性心律五项全部符合:60–100 次/分,规则,每个 QRS 之前有直立 P 波,PR 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 低于 0.12 s。
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