感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A small blood spill is found on the ward floor. What is the correct approach?
一名有决策能力的成年患者请护士不要把自己的癌症诊断告诉家人。护士应该怎么做?
艰难梭菌(Clostridioides difficile)感染患者的病房,推荐使用哪种清洁用品?
一名疑似百日咳的患者因没有空闲单人间,需要暂住共用病房。在联系感染控制期间,哪种安排最恰当?
A patient is receiving continuous tube feeds. Which action best reduces the risk of aspiration?
一名患者正经外周静脉输注氯化钾,诉说穿刺部位烧灼感,该处发红。护士首先做什么?
给予 β 受体阻滞剂之前,最重要的是检查哪项观察指标?
A patient is taught to self-inject low-molecular-weight heparin. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
How should a patient collect a clean-catch midstream urine sample?
A man of Mediterranean descent develops dark urine, jaundice and a falling hemoglobin a few days after eating fava beans. Which condition is most likely?
A malnourished patient with alcohol dependence needs IV glucose. Which vitamin should be given before or with it?
During an alteplase infusion for acute ischaemic stroke, the patient develops a sudden severe headache and her level of consciousness falls. What is the nurse's first action?
A patient takes both digoxin and furosemide. Why does the nurse watch the potassium level closely?
A patient has new chest pain at rest. The ECG shows ST depression, but serial troponins remain normal. Which diagnosis fits best?
Why is pyridostigmine often taken about 30–60 minutes before meals by patients with myasthenia gravis?
An adult stares blankly for about a minute, smacks their lips and fumbles with their clothes. Afterwards they are confused for ten minutes and remember nothing. Which seizure type fits best?
PCA 泵的锁定间隔的目的是什么?
A nurse teaches a patient after a colonoscopy with polyp removal. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
Which finding on day 4 after a caesarean suggests a wound infection?
胎心监护图显示基线变异消失,并反复出现晚期减速。该图形如何分类,需要怎样处理?
打针后,一名 4 岁儿童坚持要在注射部位贴上创可贴。如何解释?
An overweight 12-year-old has had a limp and knee pain for 3 weeks. The knee looks normal. What should the nurse suspect?
A 4-year-old asks when her grandmother, who died last week, will come back. How should the nurse explain this to the parents?
An older patient receiving haloperidol for agitation has an episode of fainting and palpitations. Which test does the nurse expect to be ordered first?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次滴速计算得到 143.575 gtt/min。 本练习的规则是:滴速取整到最接近的整滴。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 19:55 开始,到次日早晨 02:25 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少分钟t?
一名体重 113 kg 的患者体表面积为 2.07 m²。医嘱为 100 mg/m²。求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
一名患者体重 178.2 lb。医嘱为单次剂量 0.5 mg/kg,储备液为 1 mL 中含 100 mg。按 1 kg = 2.2 lb 计算,你应给予多少容量 V? 保留两位小数。
用滴系数为 60 滴/mL 的输液器在 5 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。
一组输液以 50 滴/分的速度经 60 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 300 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含 250 单位普通胰岛素、容量 250 mL 的输液以 5 mL/h 输注。患者每小时接受多少单位 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dopamine 400 mg,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 5 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 82 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 60 mL/h 输注。到 16:00 时已输入 150 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张练习图表记录了 GCS 8,其中 E2 和 V2。记录的运动评分M是多少,它描述的是哪种反应?请给出数字。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 129 kg,身高 170 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
练习数值:Na⁺ 146 mmol/L,葡萄糖 12.5 mmol/L,尿素 8.5 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 46 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Bazett 公式 QTc = QT/√RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
答案: A · Wear gloves and an apron and clean it with an approved disinfectant per policy
Under standard precautions all blood is handled as potentially infectious. Spills are cleaned promptly using PPE and the spill kit or disinfectant set out in local policy.
答案: D · 尊重这一要求,不与家人分享该信息
有决策能力的患者决定谁可以获得自己的健康信息。护士可以了解患者的理由并提供支持,但必须尊重其意愿。
答案: D · 杀芽孢制剂,如含氯溶液
C. difficile 的芽孢耐受酒精和许多常规消毒剂,因此环境和设备应使用杀芽孢制剂,如含氯产品。
答案: B · 拉上床帘,间隔 1 米(3 英尺)以上,近距离接触时戴口罩
飞沫传播预防的重点是距离、口罩和屏障。首选单人间,因此应联系感染控制人员。把患者安置在易感患者附近是危险的。
答案: B · Keep the head of the bed raised to at least 30 degrees
Raising the head of the bed to at least 30 degrees during and after feeding lowers the risk of reflux and aspiration. Lying flat greatly increases the risk.
答案: A · 停止输注并评估静脉穿刺部位
疼痛和发红提示静脉炎或药液渗漏。护士应停止输注,评估部位,并通知医疗人员。继续输注或加快速度会加重组织损伤。
答案: C · 心率和血压
β 受体阻滞剂会降低心率和血压,因此出现心动过缓或低血压时,可能需要暂停给药并通知开药者。
答案: C · "I will rub the area firmly after the injection."
Rubbing the site after an anticoagulant injection increases bruising and is avoided. Rotating sites, injecting subcutaneously and reporting bleeding are correct.
答案: C · Clean the area, start voiding into the toilet, then catch the middle part
Cleaning the urethral area and discarding the first part of the stream reduce contamination from skin and urethral bacteria. The inside of the sterile container must not be touched, and the sample should reach the laboratory promptly.核对依据: Clean catch urine sample · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: D · G6PD deficiency with acute hemolysis
G6PD deficiency makes red cells vulnerable to oxidative damage. Fava beans, some drugs (such as primaquine and some sulfonamides) and infections can trigger acute hemolysis, with dark urine, jaundice and anemia. Triggers are avoided.
答案: D · Thiamine (vitamin B1)
Giving glucose without thiamine to a thiamine-deficient patient can trigger or worsen Wernicke's encephalopathy. Thiamine is therefore given before or alongside glucose.
答案: D · Stop the alteplase infusion and notify the provider urgently
A sudden headache and neurological decline during thrombolysis suggest intracranial haemorrhage. The infusion is stopped at once and the provider is called for urgent assessment and imaging.
答案: D · Low potassium increases the risk of digoxin toxicity
Digoxin binds to the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase pump at the site potassium normally uses. When potassium is low, more digoxin binds, so toxicity and arrhythmias become more likely. Loop diuretics commonly cause hypokalaemia, so the combination needs monitoring.
答案: C · Unstable angina
Unstable angina is new, worsening or rest angina without a troponin rise. It is an acute coronary syndrome and is managed urgently because it can progress to infarction. Stable angina is predictable and exertional. NSTEMI has a rising troponin.
答案: A · To improve the strength of chewing and swallowing at mealtimes
Pyridostigmine inhibits acetylcholinesterase, so more acetylcholine is available at the neuromuscular junction. Timing it before meals gives the best muscle strength for chewing and swallowing, which lowers the risk of aspiration.
答案: A · Focal impaired awareness seizure
Focal impaired awareness seizures often come from the temporal lobe. They last about a minute or two, with automatisms such as lip smacking and fumbling, and are followed by confusion. Absence seizures are shorter and have no postictal phase.
答案: D · 在上一剂尚未起效前阻止新剂量
每次推注后,泵在设定的时间内(常为 5–10 分钟)忽略进一步的按压,使该剂量有时间起效。这与剂量限制一起降低了过量的风险。
答案: A · "Severe abdominal pain is normal for a week afterwards."
Mild bloating and cramps from the air used are expected. Severe or worsening pain, fever, a distended abdomen or heavy rectal bleeding can mean perforation or haemorrhage and must be reported straight away.
答案: B · Redness, warmth and discharge
Redness spreading from the incision, warmth, swelling, purulent discharge, gaping edges and fever suggest infection. Numbness near the scar is common and not a sign of infection.
答案: B · Ⅲ类:异常图形,需要及时干预并准备尽快分娩
在三级分类系统中,变异消失并伴有反复的晚期或变异减速,或伴有心动过缓,属于Ⅲ类。应立即开始宫内复苏,呼叫团队,如果图形不能缓解则尽快娩出胎儿。
答案: A · 学龄前儿童害怕身体受伤,可能认为体内的东西会漏出来
学龄前儿童对身体的理解有限,害怕受伤和残缺。创可贴可让他们放心,觉得身体又“关上”了。
答案: D · Slipped capital femoral epiphysis
Slipped capital femoral epiphysis typically affects overweight adolescents during the growth spurt. Hip pathology often presents as knee pain. The child should avoid weight-bearing and needs urgent orthopaedic assessment.
答案: A · Young children often do not yet see death as permanent, so simple, honest words help
Preschool children often see death as temporary or reversible. Clear, simple language, such as "her body stopped working", and avoiding phrases like "gone to sleep" help the child understand.
答案: B · An ECG to look for a prolonged QT interval
Haloperidol and several other antipsychotics can prolong the QT interval, which increases the risk of dangerous ventricular arrhythmias. Fainting and palpitations need an ECG and a check of potassium and magnesium.
答案: x = 144 gtt/min
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: t = 390 min
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: D = 207 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: V = 0.41 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: R = 100 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: t = 6 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: D = 5 件/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 15.4 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 970 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 5.8 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 5 h 50 min,所以袋子大约在 21:50 输完。
答案: M = 4
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 肥胖 III 级
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: Osm = 313 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: PaCO₂ = 53.2 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: QTc = 0.49 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
超过男性(约 0.45 s)和女性(约 0.46 s)的通常上限:延长。(490 ms)
答案: 心脏停搏
室性节律:室性心动过速是连续三个或以上宽大(0.12 s 或以上)的波群,频率超过 100 次/分,通常为 150–250 次/分,节律规则,没有相关的 P 波。心室颤动是紊乱、不规则的波形,无法辨认 P 波、QRS 波群或 T 波,也没有可计数的频率。心脏停搏是几乎平直的线,没有心室活动;平直线一定要通过检查患者、导联和增益并换一个导联来确认。在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律,心脏停搏则不是。
平直线必须核实:查看患者、导联和增益,并换看第二个导联,因为电极脱落或细颤型室颤都可能看起来像心脏停搏。
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