感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
How is a pulse deficit measured?
According to the gate control theory, why can rubbing a bumped elbow ease the pain?
A nurse pours sterile saline into a bowl on a sterile field. Which technique is correct?
In a US hospital (CMS rules), a patient keeps pulling at an endotracheal tube, and alternatives have failed. The nurse applies wrist restraints in an emergency. What must happen next?
A nurse needs to give report on a patient to a colleague. Which information is the most important to include?
A charge nurse notices that a nurse smells of alcohol and is slurring words at the start of the shift. What is the priority?
Which is a major risk factor for Clostridioides difficile infection?
A patient has a swollen, warm, tender calf on one side. Which action should the nurse avoid?
Two sets of blood cultures are ordered for a patient with suspected sepsis. How are they best collected?
The nurse teaches a patient with iron-deficiency anemia who is starting oral iron. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A patient with suspected sepsis has blood cultures ordered and a first antibiotic dose due. What should the nurse do?
可待因由 CYP2D6 转化为吗啡。在 CYP2D6 超快代谢者身上会发生什么?
Why should a long-acting beta-2 agonist (LABA) never be used alone in asthma?
A patient receiving noradrenaline (norepinephrine) through a peripheral cannula has pale, cold skin around the site. What should the nurse do?
长期服用苯妥英的患者应被告知哪种副作用?
A patient with motor neurone disease reports morning headaches, poor sleep and sleepiness during the day. What do these symptoms suggest?
哪种敷料通常适用于渗出液多的伤口?
一名肝硬化伴腹水的患者出现新发热、腹部压痛和意识混乱加重。应怀疑哪种并发症?
A preterm baby at 30 weeks has repeated pauses in breathing of more than 20 seconds. Which drug is commonly used?
A woman had a classical (vertical upper-segment) caesarean in her last pregnancy. She asks about her plan for this birth. Which answer is accurate?
一名法洛四联症患儿在哭闹时突然变得非常青紫、呼吸急促。哪种体位有帮助?
Which newborn should the nurse assess first?
A patient with limited English needs a mental health assessment. Who should interpret?
The parent of a child recently diagnosed with autism asks, "Did his vaccines cause this?" What is the most accurate response?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 96.6 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注的给药速率为 5 mg/h。请把这个剂量速率D用 mcg/min 表示。取到一位小数。
某患者体重 80 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 25 mg/kg,分 2 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
处方为 7600 单位的药物,药液规格为 10000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求在 6 小时内输入 1500 mL。2 小时后你发现袋中还剩 1100 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
医嘱要求在 12 小时内输入 500 mL。10 小时后你发现袋中还剩 90 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 原来的泵速必须提高百分之多少 Δ?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋输液的 100 mL 中含普通胰岛素 100 单位。医嘱为 1 unit/h。求泵速 R(mL/h)。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dopamine 800 mg,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 5 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 100 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 1000 mL 的输液于 09:30 开始以 120 mL/h 输注。3 小时后速率改为 150 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 无、卧床休息或由护士协助; 静脉输液或封管: 是; 步态: 正常、卧床休息或轮椅; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名练习用新生儿出生后 1 分钟时:躯干粉红,手脚青紫,心率 60 次/分,刺激后无反应,四肢略有屈曲,无呼吸。 为 Apgar 评分并点击该评分的解读。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.50,PaCO₂ 48 mmHg (6.4 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 36 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
练习数值:Na⁺ 139,Cl⁻ 110,HCO₃⁻ 18 mmol/L,白蛋白 27 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房与心室之间存在传导问题。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
答案: A · Two nurses count the apical and radial pulse at the same time for one minute
A pulse deficit is the apical rate minus the radial rate, counted at the same time over a full minute. It shows that some heartbeats are too weak to reach the wrist, as in atrial fibrillation.
答案: B · Touch signals reduce pain signals passing up the spinal cord
The gate control theory proposes that input from touch fibres "closes the gate" in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, reducing pain transmission. This underlies massage and TENS.
答案: B · Hold the bottle with the label in the palm and pour without touching the bowl
The nurse pours from a little height without touching the sterile bowl, avoiding splashes that would wet the field. Holding the label in the palm keeps it readable and free of drips.
答案: B · Obtain a time-limited order for the restraint promptly, following policy
Under US CMS rules, a nurse may apply a restraint first in an emergency, but an order from a licensed provider must be obtained promptly according to policy. PRN restraint orders are not allowed, and family consent does not replace an order. Other countries use different legal frameworks, but restraint is always a last resort that must be authorized, reviewed and documented.
答案: B · The patient’s current condition, recent changes and pending tasks
Effective handover covers the current status, changes, risks and outstanding tasks, often using a structure such as SBAR. Opinions and unrelated details distract from what matters.
答案: A · Remove the nurse from patient care and report it according to policy
A nurse who appears impaired must not care for patients. The charge nurse removes them from duty and follows policy for reporting; support, such as an assistance program, can follow.
答案: D · Recent broad-spectrum antibiotic use
Broad-spectrum antibiotics disrupt normal gut flora, letting C. difficile overgrow. Older age, hospital stay and proton pump inhibitors also increase the risk.
答案: C · Massaging the calf
Unilateral calf swelling and tenderness suggests DVT. Massaging the leg is avoided in case it dislodges the clot; the patient needs medical review and investigation.
答案: D · From two separate venipuncture sites, using strict aseptic technique
Taking cultures from two separate sites helps distinguish true bacteremia (growth in both sets) from skin contamination (growth in only one). The skin is cleaned carefully, the bottle tops are disinfected, and cultures are taken before antibiotics.
答案: C · "I'll take my iron tablet with a big glass of milk"
Calcium in milk, as well as antacids and tea, reduces iron absorption, so iron should not be taken with them. Vitamin C improves absorption, dark stools are expected, and iron overdose is a serious poisoning risk in young children.核对依据: Iron deficiency anemia - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025); Iron in diet - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: D · Take the blood cultures first, then give the antibiotic at once
Cultures are taken before antibiotics so the organism can be identified, but antibiotics must not be delayed in sepsis. Taking cultures quickly and then giving the antibiotic meets both aims.
答案: D · 生成更多吗啡,增加阿片类药物中毒风险
超快代谢者把更多可待因转化为吗啡,可能引起呼吸抑制。慢代谢者生成的吗啡很少,镇痛效果差。这是药物遗传学的经典例子。
答案: B · Without an inhaled steroid, it is linked with severe and fatal attacks
LABA monotherapy in asthma is linked with severe attacks and asthma deaths because it relieves symptoms while airway inflammation continues. In asthma, LABAs are always given with an inhaled corticosteroid, often in one combination inhaler.
答案: C · Stop it at that site, inform the team and follow the extravasation policy
Extravasated noradrenaline causes intense local vasoconstriction and tissue necrosis. The infusion is stopped at that site (with a plan to continue elsewhere, since the patient depends on it), the team is informed and the local extravasation protocol is followed. Vasopressors are given through a central line where possible.
答案: D · 牙龈增生,因此良好的口腔卫生很重要
苯妥英常引起牙龈增生,还可引起多毛、面部特征粗糙,高浓度时出现共济失调、眼球震颤和嗜睡。良好的牙齿护理可减少牙龈问题。该药治疗窗窄,因此要监测血药浓度。
答案: A · Weak breathing at night, so a review for ventilation support
Weak respiratory muscles cause nocturnal hypoventilation and a rise in CO2, leading to morning headaches, disturbed sleep and daytime drowsiness. Non-invasive ventilation can improve symptoms and survival, in line with the patient's wishes.
答案: C · 藻酸盐或泡沫
藻酸盐和泡沫能吸收大量渗出液。水凝胶为干燥伤口增加水分,薄膜适合渗出液少的浅表伤口,干纱布会粘在创面上。应保护周围皮肤免受浸渍。
答案: D · 自发性细菌性腹膜炎
自发性细菌性腹膜炎是没有明显来源的腹水感染。可表现为发热、腹痛、脑病或肾损伤。需要诊断性腹腔穿刺(中性粒细胞计数)并及时使用抗生素。
答案: A · Caffeine citrate
Apnoea of prematurity results from an immature respiratory centre. Caffeine citrate stimulates breathing and reduces apnoea episodes. Gentle stimulation is used during an episode.
答案: D · A planned repeat caesarean before labour is advised
A classical uterine scar carries a high risk of rupture during labour, so trial of labour is contraindicated. A repeat caesarean is planned before labour starts, and she should come in at once if contractions begin.
答案: A · 膝胸卧位(或蹲踞)
屈膝贴胸可提高体循环血管阻力,使右向左分流减少,更多血液流向肺部。应保持孩子平静,给氧并呼叫援助。
答案: C · A 2-hour-old with grunting, nasal flaring and a respiratory rate of 74/min
Grunting, nasal flaring and tachypnoea (above about 60/min) are signs of respiratory distress and need immediate assessment. Milia, acrocyanosis in the first days and mild jaundice after 24 hours in a well-feeding baby are common and expected.
答案: B · A trained professional interpreter
Professional interpreters translate accurately and keep confidentiality. Family members, especially children, may filter information and should not interpret sensitive assessments such as those about suicide or abuse.
答案: D · "Large studies have found no link between vaccines and autism."
Large, well-conducted studies have found no link between vaccines and autism, and the paper that first claimed a link was retracted. Autism is a neurodevelopmental condition with strong genetic contributions.
答案: T = 35.9 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: D = 83.3 mcg/min
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: D = 1000 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 0.76 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 275 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: Δ = 8 %
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: R = 1 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 18.8 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 160 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 7.3 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 7 h 16 min,所以袋子大约在 16:46 输完。
答案: MFS = 20
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 低
Apgar 评分:五项体征,每项评 0、1 或 2 分,在出生后 1 分钟和 5 分钟检查。外观(肤色):青紫或苍白 0 分,躯干粉红、四肢青紫 1 分,全身粉红 2 分。脉搏:无 0 分,低于 100 次/分 1 分,100 次/分或以上 2 分。反射(反射应激性):无 0 分,做鬼脸 1 分,哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏 2 分。肌张力(活动):松软 0 分,略有屈曲 1 分,活动活跃 2 分。呼吸:无 0 分,缓慢或不规则、哭声微弱 1 分,良好、哭声响亮 2 分。总分 7–10 为令人放心,4–6 为中度异常,0–3 为低。
答案: 部分代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: AGc = 14.25 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: 窦性心动过缓
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 三度(完全性)房室传导阻滞
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
II 型和三度阻滞可能突然进展,所以教科书将它们列为比 I 型更严重。
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