感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
护士给疼痛的患者使用了镇痛药。下一步重要的是什么?
一名现已缺乏决策能力的患者曾作出一项有效且适用的预先决定,拒绝某种特定的维持生命治疗。工作人员应该怎么做(英格兰和威尔士)?
A patient has a non-violent restraint. In most nursing policies, how often at minimum is it released for range of motion, toileting and skin care?
A patient on oxygen needs an MRI scan. Which plan is safe?
A patient taking warfarin has an INR of 5.2 and no signs of bleeding. What should the nurse do?
A patient has a new spinal cord injury at C4. Which assessment is the priority?
A patient with sickle cell disease is admitted with a painful crisis. What is a key early nursing priority?
一名使用抗凝药的患者跌倒并撞到头部,但看起来情况良好。正确的做法是什么?
在给予处方的静脉氯化钾之前,哪项评估最重要?
A child with sickle cell disease and a recent viral illness is pale and tired. The hemoglobin has fallen sharply, and the reticulocyte count is very low. What is the most likely problem?
A patient with insulin-treated diabetes is found unconscious with very low blood glucose. There is no IV access. Which drug can a trained helper give?
A patient with asthma starts timolol eye drops for glaucoma and soon becomes wheezy. What is the most likely explanation?
Which exercise advice is recommended for intermittent claudication?
A patient had 40 minutes of chest pain at rest. The ECG shows ST depression without ST elevation, and the troponin is rising. What is the diagnosis?
Which lifestyle advice best helps a patient with epilepsy reduce their seizures?
血液透析期间,一名患者血压降至 80/50 mmHg,感到头晕恶心。最恰当的首要护理措施是什么?
What is the main treatment for a venous leg ulcer with an adequate arterial supply?
一名烧伤面积占体表 35% 的患者正在进入高代谢期。哪种营养方案最恰当?
In early pregnancy, how does the serum hCG level normally change?
Why does the ductus arteriosus normally close after birth?
A 3-day-old has a red, swollen eyelid with a heavy discharge of pus. What should the nurse do?
9 个月婴儿的哪项发现最需要尽快进行发育随访?
Which risk applies when antipsychotics are used in older people with dementia?
A man with gambling disorder has lost his savings and has large debts. He tells the nurse, "My family would be better off without me." What should the nurse do?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名新生儿体重 6 lb 8 oz。按 1 lb = 16 oz 和 1 kg = 2.2 lb,求以千克表示的体重m。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 医嘱为 3 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 91 kg。请把剂量速率D用 mg/h 表示。取到两位小数。
一名体重 19 kg 的儿童按 10 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 50 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
处方剂量为 460 微克。安瓿浓度为 2 mg/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求以 25 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一袋液体在 100 mL 中含药 200 mg,以 25 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 25 000 单位,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 12 units/kg/h,患者体重 50 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dobutamine 500 mg,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 12.5 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 104 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 07:30 开始用输液泵以 80 mL/h 输注。到 12:00 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张练习图表记录了 GCS 15,其中 E4 和 V5。记录的运动评分M是多少,它描述的是哪种反应?请给出数字。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 57 kg,身高 188 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.44,PaCO₂ 60 mmHg (8.0 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 39 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 38 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Bazett 公式 QTc = QT/√RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
依次按五个步骤解读这条 II 导联心电图:心率、节律、P 波、PR 间期、QRS 时限。你在哪一步发现第一个异常?点击它。
答案: B · 在药物有时间起效后重新评估疼痛
应在与药物和给药途径相匹配的间隔后重新评估疼痛。这能说明治疗是否有效,以及是否出现了镇静等副作用。
答案: A · 遵循该预先决定,不给予该治疗
有效且适用的预先决定与有能力的患者当面拒绝具有同等效力。拒绝维持生命治疗的预先决定必须是书面的、经签名和见证,并声明即使危及生命也适用。
答案: A · At least every 2 hours
Restrained patients are checked often for circulation, skin and comfort, and the restraint is released at least every 2 hours for movement, toileting, fluids and skin care. Exact intervals follow the facility’s policy.
答案: A · Use only MRI-safe equipment, and never take a standard steel oxygen cylinder into the scanner room
Steel oxygen cylinders can become projectiles in an MRI room and cause fatal injuries. Only equipment labeled MRI-safe is used, and the patient’s oxygen needs are planned with the MRI team.
答案: D · Hold the warfarin dose and inform the provider
An INR well above target raises the risk of serious bleeding. The nurse holds the dose, informs the provider and watches for bleeding. Without bleeding, holding warfarin is usually enough at this level; vitamin K is mainly used for very high INRs or bleeding.
答案: B · Breathing effort and ability to cough
Injuries at C3–C5 can affect the phrenic nerve and diaphragm, so breathing may fail. Respiratory function is monitored closely, and the patient may need ventilatory support.
答案: C · Giving prompt, effective analgesia
A sickle cell crisis needs rapid analgesia, often opioids, within a short target time, plus hydration, oxygen if hypoxic, warmth and monitoring for complications. Cold can trigger more sickling.
答案: D · 安排医生评估并很可能行 CT 检查,同时进行神经系统观察
使用抗凝药的患者头部受伤后颅内出血风险很高,即使症状轻微也是如此,因此指南建议尽早影像学检查并进行神经系统监测。
答案: D · 尿量和肾功能
肾脏排泄钾,因此尿量少或肾衰竭可能导致补钾期间发生危险的高钾血症。静脉钾必须稀释,并通过输液泵输注,绝不能静脉推注。核对依据: High potassium level · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: A · An aplastic crisis, often caused by parvovirus B19
Patients with sickle cell disease depend on a high reticulocyte count because their red cells live only a short time. Parvovirus B19 can stop red cell production for days, causing a rapid fall in hemoglobin with very low reticulocytes. Transfusion may be needed.核对依据: Reticulocyte Count · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: B · Glucagon by injection or nasal spray
Glucagon breaks down liver glycogen and raises blood glucose. Nothing is given by mouth to an unconscious patient because of the risk of choking and aspiration.
答案: A · Timolol is absorbed and blocks beta-2 receptors in the airways
Ophthalmic timolol is a non-selective beta blocker and can reach the circulation in amounts that cause bronchospasm or bradycardia. It is generally avoided in asthma.
答案: A · Supervised walking until pain is near maximal, then rest and repeat
Supervised exercise programmes, walking to near-maximal claudication pain, resting and repeating for about 30 minutes several times a week, improve walking distance. With smoking cessation, an antiplatelet and a statin, this is first-line management.
答案: A · Non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction
An NSTEMI is an acute coronary syndrome with myocardial necrosis (rising troponin) but no persistent ST elevation; ST depression or T wave inversion may be seen. It is treated with antiplatelets, anticoagulation and angiography based on risk, rather than emergency reperfusion.
答案: B · Keep regular sleep and take every dose on time
Missed doses and lack of sleep are among the most common seizure triggers. Excess alcohol and, in some people, flashing lights are others. Most people can exercise safely, with sensible precautions such as not swimming alone.
答案: A · 让患者平躺,减少超滤,并寻求帮助
透析中低血压很常见。调整体位、减少或暂停超滤,并按方案给予少量生理盐水推注,通常可恢复血压。对易发生低血压的患者,降压药常按医嘱在透析前暂停。
答案: C · Compression therapy
Graduated compression reduces venous hypertension and oedema and speeds healing. Leg elevation, exercise and treating the underlying vein disease also help.
答案: A · 早期肠内营养,高能量、高蛋白
大面积烧伤导致持续的高代谢、分解代谢状态,伴肌肉丢失。早期肠内营养(常在 24 小时内)提供高能量和高蛋白以及微量营养素,可支持伤口愈合和免疫,并有助于保护肠屏障。应监测体重和摄入量。
答案: C · It roughly doubles every 2 to 3 days in the first weeks
In a normal early intrauterine pregnancy hCG roughly doubles every 48 to 72 hours, then peaks at around 8 to 10 weeks. A slow rise can suggest an ectopic pregnancy or a failing pregnancy.
答案: A · Rising oxygen levels and falling prostaglandins
Higher blood oxygen and lower prostaglandin levels after birth cause the ductus arteriosus to constrict. Prostaglandin infusions are used to keep it open in duct-dependent heart defects.
答案: A · Arrange prompt medical review, as infection from the birth canal is possible
Neonatal conjunctivitis with heavy pus and swelling may be caused by gonococcus or chlamydia acquired during birth. Gonococcal infection can damage the cornea rapidly, so swabs and prompt treatment are needed, and the parents are tested and treated too.
答案: C · 婴儿只用一只手,忽略另一只手
约 18 个月之前出现明显的利手偏好,可能提示另一侧无力,例如脑瘫。不会走、怕生和没有清晰的词是 9 个月时的典型表现。
答案: D · An increased risk of stroke and death
Antipsychotics in older people with dementia are linked to increased rates of stroke and death. They are used only when non-drug approaches have failed and distress or risk is severe, at the lowest dose for the shortest time.
答案: D · Ask directly about suicidal thoughts and plans, and assess his risk
Gambling disorder is associated with a raised risk of suicide, especially with debt, shame and hopelessness. The statement is a warning sign that needs direct questions and risk assessment.
答案: m = 2.95 kg
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 16.38 mg/h
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 3.8 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 0.23 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: R = 25 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
使用微滴输液器(60 gtt/mL)时,gtt/min 等于 mL/h。
答案: D = 50 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 12 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 39 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 870 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 640 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: M = 6
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 体重过轻
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
临床上还应检查预期代偿:代谢性碱中毒时 PaCO₂ ≈ 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 = 46.3–50.3 mmHg,所以实测 60 mmHg 提示合并呼吸性酸中毒(混合性紊乱)。上面的答案是按 ROME 法的考试分类。
答案: PaCO₂ = 47.6 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: QTc = 0.387 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
在通常上限之内(男性约 0.45 s,女性约 0.46 s)。(387 ms)
答案: PR 间期
每条心电图的五个步骤:1. 心率(300 法或 1500 法;若不规则则用 6 秒法);2. 节律:R–R 间期是否相等;3. P 波:是否存在、在 II 导联直立、每个 QRS 之前各有一个且形态一致;4. PR 间期:0.12–0.20 s 且恒定;5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s。五个步骤做完之后才命名节律。正常窦性心律五项全部符合:60–100 次/分,规则,每个 QRS 之前有直立 P 波,PR 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 低于 0.12 s。
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