感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
How should a patient walk with a standard (non-wheeled) walking frame?
On the day after surgery, a patient's new stoma has turned dark purple. What should the nurse do?
A patient on contact precautions must be taken to another department for a test. What is correct?
A visitor becomes very agitated and starts shouting at the nurse in a patient’s room. What should the nurse do first?
On day 3 after hip surgery, a patient suddenly becomes short of breath with sharp chest pain and an SpO₂ of 88%. What should the nurse do first?
A patient in hypovolemic shock is receiving IV fluids. Which finding best shows that the treatment is working?
How does ulcerative colitis differ from Crohn's disease?
An older patient found on the floor after lying there for many hours has dark brown urine and a very high creatine kinase. What is the main risk?
A patient on warfarin for atrial fibrillation has a target INR of 2.0–3.0. How does the usual target for a patient with a mechanical mitral valve compare?
A patient with cirrhosis and ascites has fever and abdominal tenderness. The ascitic fluid neutrophil count is 400 cells/mm³. What does this indicate?
Which approach is usually recommended to prevent constipation in a patient on regular opioids?
Before starting rituximab, patients are tested for hepatitis B. Why?
Which ECG finding is typical of atrial flutter?
After a fall onto the chest, part of a patient's chest wall moves inward when they breathe in and outward when they breathe out. What does this indicate?
卒中静脉溶栓后的最初 24 小时内,哪些观察最重要?
一名 1 型糖尿病患者因明天手术而禁食。哪种方案最安全?
Which statement about corticosteroids in inflammatory bowel disease is correct?
一名体重 70 kg 的成人烧伤面积占体表总面积 40%。按 Parkland 公式,最初 24 小时的晶体液通常如何分配?
Which event in an Rh-negative, non-sensitised woman requires an extra dose of anti-D immunoglobulin?
A woman at 31 weeks with contractions has a negative fetal fibronectin test. What does this result mean?
在镰状细胞病的血管闭塞性(疼痛)危象的处理中,哪些措施是核心?
After successful treatment of anaphylaxis, why is the child observed for several hours?
A patient with dependent personality disorder asks the nurse to choose her clothes and meals every day. What is an appropriate nursing goal?
一名服用氯氮平的患者体温 38.5 °C,咽痛。优先事项是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次小剂量注射的计算得到 0.52615 mL。 本练习的规则是:低于 1 mL 的体积取到最接近的百分之一 mL。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了¾ 杯 / 茶, 2 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, 6 fl oz / 果汁, 2 tsp / 止咳糖浆。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一支肾上腺素安瓿标示为 1:1000(1 mg/mL)。医嘱为 0.3 mg 肌内注射(IM),用于严重过敏反应。你应抽取多少体积 V?
一名体重 12 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 10 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 120 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 10 滴/mL 的输液器在 2 小时内输入 1000 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
将 1000 mg 药物稀释于 250 mL 中,通过滴系数为 15 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。医嘱为每小时 80 mg。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 12 500 单位,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 18 units/kg/h,患者体重 96 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 56 kg 的患者的医嘱为nitroglycerin 50 mcg/min。输液袋中含 50 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 109 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 80 mL/h 输注。到 19:30 时已输入 750 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 非常受限; 潮湿程度: 持续潮湿; 活动: 局限于椅子; 活动能力: 轻度受限; 营养: 充足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 潜在问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 120 kg,身高 157 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
某练习血气显示 PaCO₂ 72 mmHg (9.6 kPa)。利用规则:在慢性呼吸性酸中毒中,PaCO₂ 每比 40 高出 10 mmHg,HCO₃⁻ 升高 3.5 mmol/L,以HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L 为起点,求预期HCO₃⁻。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 36 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
测量这条 II 导联心电图上的QT 间期,以秒为单位。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
答案: B · Lift the frame forward, then step into it
The frame is lifted a short step forward with all four feet placed down, then the patient steps into it, usually leading with the weaker leg.
答案: D · Report it urgently, as the stoma may be losing its blood supply
A dusky, purple or black stoma suggests ischaemia or necrosis, which can need surgery. The nurse reports it to the surgical team at once.
答案: C · Cover wounds, give the patient a clean gown and tell the receiving department
Transport is limited to what is necessary. Infected areas are contained or covered, the patient wears a clean gown, the receiving area is informed and equipment is cleaned afterwards.
答案: A · Keep a safe distance and a clear exit, speak calmly and call security if needed
In a potentially violent situation, the nurse keeps a safe distance and a clear path to the door, uses calm, simple words and gets help early. Touching or arguing with an agitated person can make things worse.
答案: C · Raise the head of the bed, give oxygen and call for urgent help
Sudden breathlessness and chest pain after surgery suggest a pulmonary embolism. The nurse supports breathing with positioning and oxygen and escalates at once; walking or leg massage could make things worse.
答案: A · Urine output at least 0.5 mL/kg/h and clearer thinking
Improving urine output, mental state and heart rate show better tissue perfusion. A rising heart rate and cool skin suggest ongoing shock, and new crackles may mean fluid overload.
答案: D · Ulcerative colitis affects only the colon, continuously from the rectum
Ulcerative colitis involves the mucosa of the colon, spreading continuously from the rectum. Crohn's disease can affect any part of the GI tract, is transmural and has skip lesions.
答案: D · Acute kidney injury from rhabdomyolysis
Prolonged pressure on muscles causes rhabdomyolysis, releasing myoglobin and potassium. Myoglobin can block kidney tubules; treatment includes IV fluids and close monitoring of urine output and electrolytes.
答案: C · Higher, about 2.5–3.5
Mechanical heart valves, especially in the mitral position, have a high risk of thrombosis, so the INR target is usually higher, about 2.5–3.5. An INR of 5 or more carries a high bleeding risk.核对依据: Label: WARFARIN SODIUM tablet · DailyMed (NLM/FDA) (2012)
答案: D · Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis
An ascitic neutrophil count of 250 cells/mm³ or more indicates spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, which is treated with antibiotics. It can occur without classic signs, so new confusion or worsening kidney function in cirrhosis should also prompt a diagnostic paracentesis.核对依据: Ascites · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024); Peritonitis · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: D · A stimulant laxative such as senna, often with a stool softener
Opioid-induced constipation does not usually resolve with time, so a laxative is started with the opioid. Stimulant laxatives counter reduced motility; bulk-forming laxatives alone can worsen symptoms if fluid intake is low.
答案: A · Rituximab can reactivate hepatitis B and cause liver failure
Rituximab destroys CD20-positive B cells, weakening control of latent hepatitis B. Reactivation can cause fulminant hepatitis, so carriers receive monitoring or antiviral prophylaxis.
答案: D · Regular sawtooth flutter waves between QRS complexes
Atrial flutter is caused by a re-entry circuit in the right atrium, giving regular sawtooth flutter waves, often at about 300/min with 2:1 block (ventricular rate about 150/min). A chaotic baseline with irregular QRS is atrial fibrillation. Like AF, it carries a stroke risk.
答案: A · A flail chest from ribs broken in more than one place
A flail segment occurs when adjacent ribs are fractured in two or more places, so the segment moves paradoxically. It is often associated with lung contusion and respiratory failure. Management includes oxygen, strong analgesia and sometimes ventilation or surgical fixation.
答案: D · 频繁的神经系统检查和血压
溶栓后应频繁进行神经系统观察、血压测量和出血检查。新出现的头痛、呕吐、GCS 下降或血压升高可能提示出血。通常 24 小时内避免使用抗血小板药和抗凝药。
答案: D · 继续使用一部分胰岛素(基础胰岛素或可变速率静脉输注),并监测血糖
1 型糖尿病患者停用胰岛素会在数小时内导致酮症酸中毒。围手术期应继续基础胰岛素(常减量),或对较长时间的禁食使用含葡萄糖液体的可变速率静脉胰岛素输注。禁食期间暂停餐时胰岛素。需要经常检测血糖。
答案: D · They are used to induce remission, not for maintenance
Steroids settle flares but are not effective or safe for maintenance because of side effects such as osteoporosis, diabetes and infection. Drugs such as aminosalicylates, immunomodulators or biologics maintain remission.
答案: A · 一半在烧伤后的最初 8 小时内,另一半在随后的 16 小时内
Parkland 公式得出 24 小时内 4 × 70 × 40 = 11 200 mL。其中一半(5600 mL)应在从烧伤时刻(而非到达医院时)起算的最初 8 小时内输入,其余在 16 小时内输入。随后根据尿量调整速度。
答案: C · Amniocentesis
Any potentially sensitising event, such as amniocentesis, abdominal trauma, bleeding, miscarriage or ectopic pregnancy, can mix fetal and maternal blood. Anti-D is given after it to prevent antibody formation.
答案: D · Birth within the next 1 to 2 weeks is unlikely
Fetal fibronectin is a protein that binds the membranes to the uterine lining. A negative result has a high negative predictive value, meaning birth within 7 to 14 days is unlikely; a positive result is less predictive.
答案: D · 补液、有效镇痛,以及孩子缺氧时给氧
补液、及时镇痛(常用阿片类药物)、保暖,以及血氧饱和度低时给氧是关键。寒冷引起血管收缩,可能加重镰变。
答案: A · Symptoms can return even after recovery
Some children have a biphasic reaction, with symptoms returning hours after initial recovery without further exposure. They are observed for a period set by guidelines, discharged with an action plan and auto-injectors, and referred to an allergy service.
答案: C · The patient will make small everyday decisions on her own
People with dependent personality disorder have an excessive need to be cared for and difficulty making decisions. Nursing care encourages and praises small independent decisions to build confidence.
答案: C · 紧急上报,以便在下一次给药前检查包括中性粒细胞在内的全血细胞计数
服用氯氮平的患者出现发热和咽痛可能提示中性粒细胞减少或粒细胞缺乏症。需要紧急做血细胞计数,由开医嘱者决定是否暂停该药。
答案: x = 0.53 mL
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: V = 400 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 0.3 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
美国的标签现在标示 mg/mL(1 mg/mL = 1:1000;0.1 mg/mL = 1:10 000)。切勿静脉推注 1 mg/mL 的肾上腺素。
答案: V = 5 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 83 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:83 滴/分。
答案: R = 5 gtt/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 34.6 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 15 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: U = 1.38 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 3.1 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 3 h 08 min,所以袋子大约在 22:38 输完。
答案: B = 13
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 肥胖 III 级
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: HCO₃⁻ = 35.2 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: PaCO₂ = 46.2 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: QT = 0.52 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
粗略的规则:在正常心率下,QT 应小于 R–R 间期的一半(此处 R–R = 1.12 s)。
答案: 室性自搏心律
更多室性心律:尖端扭转型室性心动过速是一种多形性室性心动过速,通常为 150–250 次/分钟,其增宽的波群高度不断变化并围绕基线扭转,先向上几个心搏,再向下。教科书将其与 QT 间期延长联系起来,复苏指南中针对它推荐的药物是硫酸镁。室性自搏心律是一种心室逸搏心律:规则、QRS 增宽(0.12 s 或以上)、无 P 波,频率 20–40 次/分钟(加速性室性自搏心律为 40–100 次/分钟)。单形性室速的增宽波群完全相同,频率超过 100 次/分钟。室颤则是混乱的,没有任何重复的波群。
室性自搏心律是一种逸搏心律:由于上方的起搏点失灵,心室接管了节律。
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