感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
一名晚期痴呆患者无法描述自己的疼痛。应如何评估疼痛?
A patient with a slow-healing leg ulcer is eating less than half of their meals. What is the most helpful nursing action?
A family member will visit a patient on contact precautions. What should the nurse do?
护士在护理一名采取接触传播预防的患者时,发现隔离衣袖子上有裂口。护士应怎么做?
Before accessing a central venous catheter, what should the nurse do to prevent infection?
护士应首先关注哪位患者?
Which group of symptoms suggests hypercalcaemia?
An older man has sudden severe abdominal and back pain, is hypotensive and has a pulsating mass in the abdomen. What should be suspected?
A tired patient with heavy menstrual periods has a normal hemoglobin and MCV but a ferritin of 8 ng/mL. What does this show?
A patient with SIADH is on fluid restriction. Which task can the RN delegate to unlicensed assistive personnel (UAP), such as a nursing or healthcare assistant?
An IV site is cool, swollen and pale, and the infusion is running slowly. What should the nurse do?
Which finding most favours serotonin syndrome over neuroleptic malignant syndrome?
How should a patient breathe in when using a pressurised metered-dose inhaler without a spacer?
A 28-year-old woman taking the combined pill comes in breathless and anxious. RR is 30/min, heart rate 118/min and SpO₂ 90% on air. A colleague says it is a panic attack. What should the nurse conclude?
一名服用达格列净(一种 SGLT2 抑制剂)的患者呕吐,血酮 4.5 mmol/L,但血糖只有 11 mmol/L。应怀疑什么?
A patient has had a high sodium of 160 mmol/L for several days. Why must it be corrected slowly?
限钠和螺内酯在肝硬化中起什么作用?
On the morning of elective hip surgery, a patient says she took her usual warfarin last night despite being told to stop. What should the nurse do?
A woman at 18 weeks asks about safe exercise. Which advice is correct?
Women with pre-eclampsia can develop complications after birth. Which statement in discharge teaching is correct?
How should the nurse position the ear when giving ear drops to a 2-year-old?
一名 9 个月大、疑似肠套叠的婴儿一直阵发性哭闹。在等待操作期间,婴儿排出正常的棕色大便,疼痛消失。护士应怎么做?
末次饮酒后,震颤谵妄最可能在何时开始?
A patient who believes he is a famous religious leader becomes upset when other patients laugh at him. What is the most appropriate nursing action?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 1:50 AM。哪个条目是 24 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了2½ tsp / 止咳糖浆, ½ tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, 1 杯 / 茶, 3 fl oz / 果汁。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
某患者体重 12 kg,医嘱为单次给药 25 mg/kg。求剂量 D(mg)。
处方剂量为 560 微克。安瓿浓度为 2 mg/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求以 125 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一组输液以 30 滴/分的速度经 20 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 900 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 64 kg 的患者推注肝素 60 units/kg。药瓶规格为 1 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dobutamine 500 mg,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 2.5 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 100 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体于 11:45 开始用输液泵以 100 mL/h 输注。到 13:45 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 无、卧床休息或由护士协助; 静脉输液或封管: 是; 步态: 虚弱; 精神状态: 高估或忘记自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 出生后 5 分钟,一名练习用新生儿的表现为:全身皮肤粉红,心率 85 次/分,刺激时做鬼脸,活动活跃,呼吸缓慢、不规则,哭声微弱。 为 Apgar 评分并点击该评分的解读。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.44,PaCO₂ 60 mmHg (8.0 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 39 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.29,PaCO₂ 26 mmHg (3.5 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 12 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Bazett 公式 QTc = QT/√RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
这条 II 导联心电图显示二度房室传导阻滞 I 型(文氏现象)。从一组的第一个搏动到第二个搏动,PR 间期增加了多少(ΔPR),以秒为单位?
答案: D · 使用对面部表情等行为评分的观察性疼痛工具
观察性工具对面部表情、发声、肢体语言和行为变化等征象评分。痴呆患者的疼痛常常被忽视。
答案: C · Refer to the dietitian and support protein and energy intake
Poor intake delays healing. Screening, dietitian referral, food charts and support with meals, including protein and energy supplements if needed, help the wound heal.
答案: D · Show them how to use the gown and gloves and how to clean their hands
Visitors are taught how to put on and remove PPE as required by the policy and how to perform hand hygiene, so they protect themselves and other patients.
答案: B · 远离患者,在门口安全脱下个人防护装备,清洁双手后重新穿隔离衣
破损的个人防护装备会使皮肤和衣物受到污染。在安全时,护士应远离患者,在门口或缓冲间按正确顺序脱下个人防护装备,清洁双手并穿戴新的防护装备。
答案: D · Scrub the hub with an antiseptic such as chlorhexidine and let it dry
Scrubbing the needleless connector with an antiseptic, such as chlorhexidine or alcohol, and letting it dry reduces central line infections. Aseptic technique is used for every access.
答案: A · 一名患者说这是“我一生中最严重的头痛”,突然发作,血压 170/100 mmHg
突发的剧烈“霹雳样”头痛可能意味着脑出血,如蛛网膜下腔出血,属于急症。其他患者的问题是已知的、稳定的,与其病史相符。
答案: C · Thirst, constipation, confusion and abdominal pain
High calcium causes polyuria and thirst, constipation, abdominal pain, kidney stones and confusion. Tingling and cramps suggest low calcium instead.
答案: D · A ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm
A ruptured AAA classically presents with pain, shock and a pulsatile mass. It is a surgical emergency needing immediate senior help and transfer to theatre.
答案: A · Iron deficiency without anemia yet
Iron stores (ferritin) are depleted before the hemoglobin falls. A low ferritin with a normal hemoglobin indicates iron deficiency without anemia, and it is usually treated, along with the cause of blood loss.核对依据: Ferritin Blood Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025); Iron deficiency anemia - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: D · Measuring and recording intake and output
UAP can measure and record intake and output and weigh the patient, then report the values to the RN. Assessing mental status, teaching and making decisions about laboratory monitoring need nursing judgment and remain with the RN.
答案: A · Stop the infusion, remove the cannula and elevate the limb
These signs suggest infiltration. The infusion is stopped and the cannula removed, the limb is elevated, and a new cannula is placed elsewhere; vesicant drugs need the extravasation protocol.
答案: C · Rapid onset with hyperreflexia and clonus
Serotonin syndrome develops within hours of a serotonergic drug and causes clonus, hyperreflexia, agitation, dilated pupils and diarrhoea. NMS develops over days after a dopamine antagonist, with lead-pipe rigidity and slow reflexes.
答案: D · Slowly and deeply while pressing the canister, then hold the breath
With a metered-dose inhaler, the patient breathes out, starts a slow deep breath, presses the canister at the start of it and then holds the breath for about 10 seconds. Coordination is difficult, which is why spacers are often used.
答案: B · Low oxygen saturation is not explained by anxiety; PE must be excluded
Panic-related hyperventilation causes respiratory alkalosis but normal oxygen saturation. Hypoxaemia with tachycardia in a woman taking oestrogen suggests PE. She needs oxygen, urgent medical assessment and investigation. Paper-bag rebreathing is unsafe and can worsen hypoxaemia.
答案: C · 正常血糖性糖尿病酮症酸中毒
SGLT2 抑制剂通过增加尿糖排出来降低血糖,因此血糖仅中度升高时也可发生 DKA。任何服用这类药物且感觉不适的患者都应检查酮体,急性疾病期间应停药(病日规则)。
答案: C · Rapid correction can cause brain swelling
In chronic hypernatraemia, brain cells adapt by holding extra solutes. If the sodium falls too quickly, water rushes into the cells and causes cerebral oedema and seizures. Correction is gradual, with regular sodium checks.
答案: B · 减少钠水潴留并控制腹水
在肝硬化中,继发性醛固酮增多症引起钠水潴留。限钠和醛固酮拮抗剂螺内酯(常与袢利尿剂联用)可减少腹水。螺内酯可引起高钾血症和男性乳房发育。
答案: D · Inform the surgical and anaesthetic teams, who will check the INR
Recent warfarin may leave the INR too high for safe surgery or a spinal anaesthetic. The team needs to know at once; they check the INR and decide whether to delay or reverse.
答案: D · Moderate exercise like walking or swimming is encouraged
Moderate exercise is safe and beneficial for most pregnant women. Contact sports, activities with a high fall risk and scuba diving are avoided, as is lying flat on the back for long periods later in pregnancy.
答案: B · It can still develop after birth, so report headache or visual changes
Pre-eclampsia and eclampsia can occur up to about 6 weeks after birth, most often in the first days. Women should report severe headache, visual disturbance, upper abdominal pain or shortness of breath.
答案: B · Pull the pinna gently down and back
In children under about 3 years the ear canal is short and angled upward, so the pinna is pulled down and back. In older children and adults it is pulled up and back.
答案: D · 立即上报,因为这可能意味着肠套叠已经复位
正常大便可能意味着肠套叠已自行复位。必须通知医疗人员,因为计划的操作可能会改变;仍需监测婴儿有无复发。
答案: B · 约 2 至 4 天(48 至 96 小时)
典型的时间:震颤和焦虑从约 6–24 小时开始,戒断性惊厥从约 12–48 小时开始,震颤谵妄从约 48–96 小时开始。时间因人而异。
答案: B · Protect him from ridicule, avoid arguing and focus on real activities
Arguing or agreeing strengthens a delusion. The nurse protects the patient's dignity, responds to his feelings and focuses on real, present activities and concerns.
答案: 01:50
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 350 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 300 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 0.28 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: R = 125 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
使用微滴输液器(60 gtt/mL)时,gtt/min 等于 mL/h。
答案: t = 10 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: V = 3.8 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 7.5 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 1170 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 300 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: MFS = 45
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 令人放心
Apgar 评分:五项体征,每项评 0、1 或 2 分,在出生后 1 分钟和 5 分钟检查。外观(肤色):青紫或苍白 0 分,躯干粉红、四肢青紫 1 分,全身粉红 2 分。脉搏:无 0 分,低于 100 次/分 1 分,100 次/分或以上 2 分。反射(反射应激性):无 0 分,做鬼脸 1 分,哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏 2 分。肌张力(活动):松软 0 分,略有屈曲 1 分,活动活跃 2 分。呼吸:无 0 分,缓慢或不规则、哭声微弱 1 分,良好、哭声响亮 2 分。总分 7–10 为令人放心,4–6 为中度异常,0–3 为低。
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
临床上还应检查预期代偿:代谢性碱中毒时 PaCO₂ ≈ 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 = 46.3–50.3 mmHg,所以实测 60 mmHg 提示合并呼吸性酸中毒(混合性紊乱)。上面的答案是按 ROME 法的考试分类。
答案: 适当的代偿
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: QTc = 0.431 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
在通常上限之内(男性约 0.45 s,女性约 0.46 s)。(431 ms)
答案: ΔPR = 0.12 s
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
PR 最大的增幅出现在一组的第一个和第二个搏动之间;之后的增幅较小,这就是暂停之前 R–R 间期缩短的原因。
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