感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
When washing a patient's eyes, how should each eye be wiped?
A recently discharged patient sends the nurse a friend request on social media. What is the most appropriate response?
A patient with diabetes will use lancets and insulin needles at home. Which teaching about disposal is correct?
一名意识混乱的患者不断拉扯鼻胃管。应首先尝试哪种方法?
哪种定时给药的药物时间要求最严格?
At the end of a shift, the nurse’s relief has not arrived and the patients are acutely ill. What should the nurse do?
Why is an urgent brain scan needed before thrombolysis for a suspected stroke?
一名输注肝素的患者在开始五天后血小板突然下降。应怀疑什么?
A patient with diabetes is found unconscious with a blood glucose of 38 mg/dL (2.1 mmol/L). Which treatment is appropriate?
A patient with acute kidney injury has a potassium of 6.8 mEq/L despite medical treatment, a pH of 7.12 and pulmonary edema not responding to diuretics. Which treatment is most likely needed?
A patient takes regular paracetamol (acetaminophen) at home. Which teaching point best prevents accidental overdose?
Why is gentamicin often given once daily instead of in several small doses?
Which ECG pattern is typical of acute pericarditis?
A patient with a large pericardial effusion has a systolic pressure that falls by more than 10 mmHg during inspiration. What is this finding called?
Why should antiepileptic drugs not be stopped suddenly?
A prescription reads "Insulin 10U". Why is this a safety problem?
Which nursing care helps a new skin graft take?
After a fall, a patient with advanced dementia is agitated, grimacing and guarding the hip, and cannot rate the pain. What should the nurse do?
一名哺乳期母亲在产后第 2 天哺乳时出现产后痛(痉挛痛)。如何解释?
A fetal tracing shows a smooth, wave-like pattern with no variability, like a sine wave. What should the nurse suspect?
Which measure should be avoided in a sickle cell pain crisis?
Which finding at a 6-month check most needs referral?
A patient says, "I'm going to be a famous singer, and I'll buy this whole hospital." Which response best uses the technique of voicing doubt?
A patient taking valproate has severe abdominal pain spreading to her back, with nausea and vomiting. What should the nurse suspect?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 5:55 PM。哪个条目是 24 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 23:25 开始,到次日早晨 00:55 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少小时t?答案以小数表示小时数,取到两位小数。
一名体重 66 kg 的患者体表面积为 1.58 m²。医嘱为 20 mg/m²。求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
一名患者体重 116.6 lb。医嘱为单次剂量 0.5 mg/kg,储备液为 1 mL 中含 50 mg。按 1 kg = 2.2 lb 计算,你应给予多少容量 V?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 12 小时内输入 1500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
25 mg 药物溶于 250 mL 的输液以 10 mL/h 运行。患者每分钟接受多少微克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 25 000 单位,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 14 units/kg/h,患者体重 104 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dobutamine 250 mg,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 5 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 68 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 47 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 1000 mL 的输液于 18:00 开始以 125 mL/h 输注。2 小时后速率改为 200 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 完全受限; 潮湿程度: 持续潮湿; 活动: 偶尔步行; 活动能力: 轻度受限; 营养: 极好; 摩擦力和剪切力: 有问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 16 次/分,SpO₂ 99%吸室内空气,血压 150/90 mmHg,脉搏 88 次/分,清醒,体温 36.8 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 10 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
练习数值:Na⁺ 137,Cl⁻ 111,HCO₃⁻ 11 mmol/L,白蛋白 33 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Bazett 公式 QTc = QT/√RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
一位处于监护中的患者被发现无反应、呼吸不正常,且摸不到颈动脉搏动。监护仪显示这种有组织的心律。这种情况叫什么?点击你的答案。
答案: B · From the inner corner outwards, using a clean part of the cloth for each eye
Wiping from the inner to the outer canthus moves debris away from the tear duct. Using a clean part of the cloth for each eye prevents spreading infection between them.
答案: A · Decline it, to keep a professional boundary
Nursing codes advise keeping clear professional boundaries, and social media contact with patients can blur them. The nurse politely declines and does not share patient information online.
答案: A · Put them in a puncture-resistant container with a lid and follow local disposal rules
Home sharps go into a puncture-resistant container, such as an approved sharps container or a rigid plastic bottle if local rules allow, which is closed and disposed of according to local guidance.
答案: B · 限制性较小的措施,如重新定向和陪护
应先尝试限制性较小的措施:重新定向、查找疼痛等原因、把管道固定在看不到的位置,以及安排人员陪伴患者。只有这些措施无效且患者有风险时,才在有医嘱的情况下使用约束或镇静剂。
答案: C · 随已送到的早餐托盘一起给予的速效胰岛素
速效胰岛素随餐给药;给得晚或不进食可导致血糖过高或过低。其他每日用药稍晚一点给予也无妨。
答案: D · Stay and tell the charge nurse, and hand over before leaving
The nurse must not leave patients without handing over to another qualified nurse. Telling the charge nurse allows staffing to be arranged safely.
答案: B · To rule out bleeding in the brain
A CT scan distinguishes haemorrhagic from ischaemic stroke. Clot-busting drugs are only given when bleeding has been excluded and other criteria are met.
答案: B · 肝素诱导的血小板减少症
HIT 通常在开始使用肝素 5–10 天后出现,血小板下降超过 50%,并有血栓风险。应停用肝素,改用非肝素类抗凝药。
答案: D · Glucagon by injection, or IV dextrose as prescribed
A patient who cannot swallow safely must not receive anything by mouth because of the risk of aspiration. Glucagon (injected or intranasal) or IV dextrose raises the glucose; once awake and able to swallow, the patient is given oral carbohydrate and a snack.核对依据: Hypoglycemia · MedlinePlus (NIH); Low blood sugar · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: A · Urgent dialysis
Indications for urgent dialysis in AKI include refractory hyperkalemia, severe metabolic acidosis, fluid overload not responding to diuretics, uremic complications and some poisonings. This patient has three of them.核对依据: Acute tubular necrosis · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: D · Check cold and flu remedies, as many also contain paracetamol
Many combination products contain paracetamol, so a patient can take too much without realising. Regular alcohol use and liver disease also increase the risk of liver damage.
答案: D · Its killing depends on high peak levels, with a post-antibiotic effect
Aminoglycosides show concentration-dependent killing and a post-antibiotic effect. Once-daily dosing gives high peaks and a low trough, which may also reduce kidney and ear toxicity.
答案: B · Widespread saddle-shaped ST elevation with PR depression
Pericarditis often causes concave ST elevation across many leads and PR segment depression, because the inflammation is not limited to one coronary territory. Localised ST elevation with reciprocal changes suggests STEMI. Pericarditis is usually treated with NSAIDs and colchicine.
答案: D · Pulsus paradoxus
Pulsus paradoxus is an exaggerated inspiratory fall in systolic pressure (more than 10 mmHg). In tamponade, the right ventricle fills on inspiration and pushes the septum left, reducing left ventricular output. It also occurs in severe asthma. A collapsing pulse suggests aortic regurgitation.
答案: A · Sudden withdrawal can trigger seizures, including status epilepticus
Stopping antiepileptics abruptly can cause rebound seizures, which may be prolonged. Changes are made gradually under medical supervision, and missed doses should be avoided.
答案: A · "U" can be misread as a zero, giving a tenfold dose
A handwritten "U" can look like a 0, turning 10 units into 100. The word "units" must be written in full. Insulin errors are a well-known cause of serious harm.
答案: B · Keeping the area still and avoiding shearing forces
Grafts need close contact with the wound bed to gain a new blood supply. Immobilisation, careful dressings and avoiding friction, shearing and collections under the graft help it take.
答案: A · Use an observational pain tool, give analgesia and reassess
In dementia, pain often appears as agitation or guarding. An observational tool supports assessment; analgesia is given and effect reassessed. The hip is also assessed for injury such as a fracture.
答案: C · 哺乳时释放的缩宫素使子宫收缩
吸吮释放缩宫素,引起乳汁排出和子宫收缩。产后痛是正常的,经产妇常常更明显。排空膀胱和使用简单的镇痛药有帮助。
答案: D · Severe fetal anaemia
A sinusoidal pattern is a regular, smooth undulating rhythm without variability. It is associated with severe fetal anaemia, for example from isoimmunisation or fetomaternal haemorrhage, and needs urgent evaluation.
答案: D · Cold packs on the painful area
Cold causes vasoconstriction and can increase sickling, so cold packs are avoided. Warmth, hydration, effective analgesia (often including opioids) and oxygen if hypoxic are used.
答案: C · The baby does not turn towards sounds or voices
Not responding to sounds at 6 months may signal hearing loss and needs referral. Crawling usually starts at about 8–10 months, and mouthing objects and wariness of strangers are normal at this age.
答案: B · "That sounds hard to believe."
Voicing doubt lets the patient know the nurse does not share the belief, without a confrontation. Arguing tends to make delusional beliefs firmer, while agreeing reinforces them.
答案: B · Pancreatitis
Valproate can cause acute pancreatitis, which can be life-threatening. Severe abdominal pain with vomiting must be reported promptly so the drug can be stopped and the patient assessed.
答案: 17:55
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: t = 1.5 h
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: D = 31.6 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: V = 0.53 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: R = 31 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:31 滴/分。
答案: D = 16.67 mcg/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 29.1 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 20.4 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 1.6 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 5.8 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 5 h 45 min,所以袋子大约在 23:45 输完。
答案: B = 13
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: PaCO₂ = 23 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: AGc = 16.75 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: QTc = 0.44 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
在通常上限之内(男性约 0.45 s,女性约 0.46 s)。(440 ms)
答案: 无脉性电活动(PEA)
无脉性电活动(PEA):PEA 无法从心电图条带上看出。监护仪显示有组织的电活动(VF、VT 或心搏停止以外的心律),但患者摸不到脉搏,因此要通过检查患者来识别。在成人复苏指南中,PEA 和心搏停止是不可电击的心脏骤停心律:进行高质量心肺复苏,尽快使用肾上腺素,并寻找可逆原因(5H 和 5T,如低血容量、缺氧、张力性气胸和心脏压塞)。VF 和无脉性 VT 是可电击心律。
PEA 在床旁识别,绝不能仅凭心电图条带。这是考试练习,不是临床指南。
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