感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A dying patient is no longer drinking and breathes through the mouth. What mouth care is most appropriate?
A man skips bowel cancer screening because he feels healthy and thinks cancer will not happen to him. Which Health Belief Model concept best explains this?
A colleague has drawn up a medication and asks the nurse to give it to her patient. What should the nurse do?
急诊候诊室里的一名患者咳嗽六周,伴盗汗、体重减轻和痰中带血。护士首先应做什么?
A nursing assistant offers to suction a patient’s new tracheostomy. Which response from the RN is best?
A patient has a wrist restraint. The nurse finds the fingers on that hand pale, cool and tingling. What should the nurse do first?
Which blood results are typical of Addison's disease (primary adrenal insufficiency)?
一名接受高流量吸氧的 COPD 患者变得嗜睡,脉搏洪大,皮肤潮红。血气显示 PaCO2 升高、pH 降低。最可能的原因是什么?
A nurse has a needlestick injury from a patient with unknown HIV status. Which test is usually done for the nurse as soon as possible?
A patient with schizophrenia drinks very large amounts of water each day. Sodium is 121 mEq/L, and the urine is very dilute (urine osmolality 70 mOsm/kg). Which explanation fits best?
A patient receives lactulose for hepatic encephalopathy. Which finding shows that it is working?
A patient on long-term prednisolone has been vomiting for two days and could not take her tablets. She is now hypotensive and confused, with low sodium and high potassium. What is the most urgent treatment?
After varicose vein surgery, which advice is usually given?
Four hours after abdominal surgery, a patient's heart rate has risen from 84 to 122/min and they are restless and pale. BP is still 118/76 mmHg, and the surgical drain is filling with blood. What should the nurse conclude?
Which statement about the PSA blood test is correct?
一名卒中并右侧肢体无力的患者准备从床转移到椅子上。哪种方法最安全?
Why should metoclopramide not be used for nausea in mechanical bowel obstruction?
腹部手术后使用硬膜外镇痛的患者血压 82/48 mmHg,脉搏 70 次/分,双足温暖。已排除出血。最可能的原因是什么?
A woman 1 day after birth has a blood pressure of 150/96 mmHg and a headache. She had normal blood pressures in pregnancy. What should the nurse do?
A newborn whose mother had a fever and prolonged rupture of membranes is well at birth. Why does the nurse monitor this baby closely?
What is a normal capillary refill time in a child?
Newborn screening shows congenital hypothyroidism. The parents ask why a baby who looks well needs treatment. What is the best answer?
How should a patient with anorexia nervosa be weighed in hospital?
A man whose wife died a month ago is rude and angry with the nurses about small things. What is the best understanding of his behaviour?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 99.8 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了1½ tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, ½ tsp / 止咳糖浆, 3 fl oz / 果汁。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一名体重 19 kg 的儿童按 5 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 25 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
处方为 2500 单位的药物,药液规格为 10000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 10 滴/mL 的输液器在 3 小时内输入 1500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一组输液以 28 滴/分的速度经 15 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 600 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 25 000 单位,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 14 units/kg/h,患者体重 90 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 85 kg 的患者的医嘱为nitroglycerin 50 mcg/min。输液袋中含 50 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 50 mL/h 输注。到 17:30 时已输入 200 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 10 次/分,SpO₂ 98%正在补充吸氧,血压 136/82 mmHg,脉搏 44 次/分,新出现意识模糊,体温 36.3 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 12 次/分,SpO₂ 91%吸室内空气,血压 150/90 mmHg,脉搏 104 次/分,清醒,体温 39.0 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.51,PaCO₂ 47 mmHg (6.3 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 36 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
练习数值:Na⁺ 143,Cl⁻ 89,HCO₃⁻ 16 mmol/L。使用 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) 计算 Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻)。保留两位小数。
测量这条 II 导联心电图上的QT 间期,以秒为单位。
这条 II 导联心电图显示二度房室传导阻滞 I 型(文氏现象)。共有多少个每组的 P 波数,包括未下传的那一个(n:(n − 1) 阻滞中的 n)?
答案: B · Keep the mouth and lips moist with frequent gentle care
Frequent gentle mouth care with moist swabs, water sprays and lip balm keeps the patient comfortable. Forcing fluids risks choking and aspiration.
答案: A · Low perceived susceptibility
In the Health Belief Model, people act when they believe they are susceptible to a serious condition and that action will help. Low perceived susceptibility reduces the chance of screening.
答案: C · Decline, and give only medications that the nurse prepared or checked personally
Nurses give only medicines they prepared themselves or verified fully, because they are accountable for what they give. A drug prepared by someone else may be wrong in ways the nurse cannot see.
答案: D · 给患者戴上口罩,并转入空气传播隔离病房
咳嗽持续时间长、盗汗、体重减轻和咯血提示肺结核。患者应佩戴外科口罩并迅速转入负压病房,工作人员佩戴呼吸器。床帘不能阻挡经空气传播的颗粒。
答案: C · “Suctioning a new tracheostomy is my task; I will do it myself.”
Care of a new tracheostomy, including suctioning, involves airway risk and assessment, so the RN keeps it. Leaving it to the family or the next shift is unsafe.
答案: D · Loosen the restraint and assess the circulation
Pale, cool fingers with tingling suggest that the restraint is too tight and blood flow is reduced. The nurse releases it at once, assesses the hand and reviews whether the restraint is still needed.
答案: A · Low sodium and high potassium
Without aldosterone, the kidneys lose sodium and retain potassium. Patients may also have low blood pressure, low glucose and increased skin pigmentation.
答案: A · 高碳酸血症性呼吸衰竭,部分由吸氧过量引起
对 CO2 潴留患者不加控制地给氧会加重高碳酸血症和呼吸性酸中毒。应把氧疗滴定到 88–92%,并请医生评估,可能需要无创通气。
答案: A · A baseline HIV test
After an occupational exposure, the wound is washed and the incident is reported at once. Baseline tests for HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C are taken, and post-exposure prophylaxis is started as soon as possible if indicated, ideally within hours.
答案: D · Primary (psychogenic) polydipsia
In primary polydipsia, ADH is appropriately suppressed, so the kidneys make very dilute urine, but the intake exceeds what they can excrete. In SIADH the urine is inappropriately concentrated. Fluid restriction and close sodium monitoring are needed.核对依据: Osmolality urine test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025); Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: D · Better alertness and orientation, with two to three soft stools a day
Lactulose is adjusted to give about two to three soft stools a day and to lower ammonia, improving mental status. Excessive diarrhoea can cause dehydration and electrolyte loss.
答案: C · IV hydrocortisone and IV fluids
This suggests an adrenal crisis triggered by missed steroids and illness. Treatment is immediate IV or IM hydrocortisone, IV fluids with glucose as needed, and treating the cause.
答案: D · Wear the compression stockings as advised and walk regularly
After varicose vein treatment, patients are encouraged to walk regularly and wear compression as instructed to reduce bruising, swelling and DVT risk. They avoid standing still or sitting for long periods and elevate the legs when resting.
答案: A · Early haemorrhagic shock is likely, so escalate urgently
Rising heart rate, restlessness, pallor and visible bleeding are signs of compensated haemorrhagic shock. Waiting for hypotension delays treatment. The nurse escalates urgently, gives oxygen, ensures IV access and anticipates bloods, fluids or blood products and surgical review.
答案: C · It can be raised by benign problems as well as by cancer
PSA can rise with BPH, prostatitis, UTI, recent ejaculation or instrumentation, as well as cancer. A normal level does not exclude cancer. Results are interpreted with symptoms, examination and other tests.
答案: A · 把椅子放在左侧,并向椅子方向转身
向较强的一侧转移更安全,这样患者可以用健侧腿负重并转身。拉扯无力的手臂可引起肩关节半脱位和疼痛。应遵循物理治疗师的建议并使用合适的辅助器具。
答案: C · It increases gut movement against the blockage
Metoclopramide stimulates gastric and intestinal motility, which can worsen pain and risk perforation in complete mechanical obstruction. Other antiemetics are chosen.
答案: A · 硬膜外引起的交感神经阻滞
硬膜外局部麻醉药可阻断交感神经传出,引起血管扩张和低血压。处理遵循硬膜外方案:评估、让患者平卧、按医嘱给予液体或血管升压药并通知麻醉医生。同时也必须始终考虑出血。
答案: D · Report it and assess for postpartum pre-eclampsia
New hypertension with a headache after birth can be postpartum pre-eclampsia, even with normal readings in pregnancy. The nurse reports it, checks urine protein and symptoms and follows the protocol.
答案: A · The baby has a higher risk of early sepsis
Maternal fever, prolonged rupture of membranes and intra-amniotic infection are risk factors for early-onset sepsis. Many protocols require observation of vital signs and feeding, and sometimes blood tests or antibiotics.
答案: D · 2 seconds or less
A capillary refill time of 2 seconds or less is normal. A longer time suggests poor perfusion, as in dehydration or shock, though a cold environment can also prolong it.
答案: A · Without early treatment it can cause lasting learning disability and poor growth
Thyroid hormone is vital for brain development and growth. Untreated congenital hypothyroidism causes permanent intellectual disability, which is why it is screened for and treated early, before symptoms appear.
答案: A · At the same time, on the same scale, in a gown, after emptying the bladder
Standardised weighing gives reliable trends. Patients may drink large amounts of water or hide objects to increase their weight, so consistent conditions and a gown are used.
答案: D · His anger may be part of grief, displaced onto staff, so she should not take it personally
Anger is a common part of grief and may be directed at staff who are safer targets. The nurse responds calmly, sets limits if needed and invites him to talk about his loss.
答案: T = 37.7 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 115 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 3.8 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 0.25 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 83 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:83 滴/分。
答案: t = 5.4 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 25.2 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 15 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: I = 1350 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 6 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 6 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 23:30 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 7
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 中
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
答案: 部分代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: Δ 比值 = 3.25
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
高于 2:合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: QT = 0.4 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
粗略的规则:在正常心率下,QT 应小于 R–R 间期的一半(此处 R–R = 0.92 s)。
答案: 每组的 P 波数 = 4
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
4:3 文氏阻滞。
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