感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
How should oxygen cylinders be stored on a ward?
A colleague suggests giving a patient who "asks for pain relief too often" a saline injection to check whether the pain is real. What is correct?
在台面上打开无菌包时,应先打开哪一片包布?
A nurse teaches a patient who has had a splenectomy. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
一名生命体征正常、病情稳定的成人手上有一处需要缝合的伤口,别无其他问题。哪个 ESI 级别合适?
A toddler with tetralogy of Fallot becomes very blue and breathless while crying. What should the nurse do first?
A confused patient keeps trying to climb out of bed. Why are bed rails not automatically the answer?
During a blood transfusion, an older patient with heart failure becomes breathless with a rising blood pressure, raised JVP and crackles in the lungs. What is the most likely cause?
Which instruction is correct for a patient starting oral iron tablets?
A young man has a swollen knee after minor trauma. His aPTT is prolonged, but his PT/INR and platelet count are normal. Which condition fits best?
Sumatriptan is contraindicated in which patient?
A patient has a serum potassium of 7.0 mmol/L (mEq/L) and peaked T waves on the ECG. Which drug is given first to protect the heart?
一名高血压患者服用氨氯地平。护士最可能观察到哪种副作用?
一名 NSTEMI 后放置了冠状动脉支架的患者问为什么要服用两种抗血小板药。哪个回答最准确?
一名 C6 水平急性脊髓损伤患者,哪种表现提示神经源性休克?
During a water deprivation test for suspected diabetes insipidus, the patient loses more than 3% of body weight and becomes hypotensive. What should the nurse do?
限钠和螺内酯在肝硬化中起什么作用?
A patient on modified-release morphine for cancer pain has needed four breakthrough doses every day for several days. What should the nurse do?
A preterm baby at 30 weeks has repeated pauses in breathing of more than 20 seconds. Which drug is commonly used?
A nurse teaches a first-time mother about exclusive breastfeeding. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A child receiving chemotherapy has painful mouth ulcers (mucositis). Which mouth care is best?
Which treatment is not routinely recommended for a typical infant with bronchiolitis?
末次饮酒后,震颤谵妄最可能在何时开始?
A patient with dementia repeatedly walks towards the ward exit, saying he must go to work. What is the most appropriate action?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次体重换算得到 39.9129 kg。 本练习的规则是:体重取到最接近的十分之一千克。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 17:05 开始,到次日早晨 06:20 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少分钟t?
一名体重 32 kg 的儿童按 5 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 25 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一袋输液在 1000 mL 中含 40000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 500 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
滴注以 40 gtt/min 的速度通过滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器。患者在 6 小时内接受多少毫升 V?
一组输液以 20 滴/分的速度经 60 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 300 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 25 000 单位,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 20 units/kg/h,患者体重 59 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dopamine 800 mg、容量 500 mL 的输液以 13 mL/h 输注。患者体重 101 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 78 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 06:00 开始以 80 mL/h 输注。4 小时后速率改为 60 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 完全受限; 潮湿程度: 偶尔潮湿; 活动: 卧床不起; 活动能力: 不受限制; 营养: 充足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 潜在问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 7 次/分,SpO₂ 88%正在补充吸氧,血压 100/60 mmHg,脉搏 110 次/分,清醒,体温 39.6 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.37,PaCO₂ 18 mmHg (2.4 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 10 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 44 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房与心室之间存在传导问题。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
答案: C · Secured upright in a holder or trolley, away from heat
Cylinders are heavy and contain gas under pressure. They are kept upright and secured, away from heat and flames, and are handled carefully.
答案: C · It is deceptive; the pain should be assessed and treated
Using a placebo without consent deceives the patient and damages trust. Response to a placebo does not prove the pain is not real. The patient's report should be believed and reassessed.
答案: B · 离护士最远的一片
先打开远端的包布,然后是两侧的包布,最后是近端的包布,这样护士就不会越过已暴露的无菌区伸手。
答案: A · “Now that my spleen is out, a fever is nothing to worry about.”
People without a spleen are at risk of overwhelming infection, especially from encapsulated bacteria. Fever needs prompt medical assessment, and vaccines are kept up to date.
答案: C · 4 级
对稳定的患者,ESI 3 至 5 级取决于预期的资源:两种或更多为 3 级,一种为 4 级,没有为 5 级。简单缝合算一种资源,因此这是 4 级。
答案: D · Place the child in a knee-to-chest position
In a hypercyanotic (“tet”) spell, the knee-chest position raises systemic vascular resistance and sends more blood to the lungs. Oxygen and prescribed medication follow.
答案: D · Patients can be seriously injured climbing over or becoming trapped in rails
Bed rails can cause entrapment or a fall from a greater height. Their use is based on an individual risk assessment; alternatives include a low bed, crash mats and closer observation.
答案: D · Transfusion-associated circulatory overload
TACO causes pulmonary oedema with hypertension and raised venous pressure, especially in older people and those with heart or kidney disease. TRALI usually presents with hypotension and no fluid overload signs.
答案: D · Your stools may turn dark green or black
Oral iron commonly darkens the stools, which is harmless, but black tarry stools with abdominal pain should be reported. Milk, antacids and tea reduce absorption; vitamin C or orange juice can improve it.核对依据: Ferrograd C patient information leaflet (ferrous sulfate + vitamin C) · electronic medicines compendium (eMC), UK (2018)
答案: C · Hemophilia A (factor VIII deficiency)
Hemophilia A is an X-linked lack of factor VIII, which belongs to the intrinsic pathway, so only the aPTT is prolonged. Bleeding into joints and muscles is typical. Vitamin K deficiency and DIC prolong the PT as well, and ITP lowers the platelets.核对依据: Hemophilia A · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026); Partial Thromboplastin Time (PTT) Test · MedlinePlus (NIH)
答案: A · A patient with coronary artery disease
Triptans can constrict coronary arteries and cause angina or myocardial infarction. They are avoided in coronary disease, uncontrolled hypertension and previous stroke.
答案: D · Intravenous calcium gluconate
IV calcium stabilises the myocardial cell membrane within minutes and reduces the risk of arrhythmia. Other treatments then shift potassium into cells (insulin with glucose) or remove it from the body.
答案: B · 踝部肿胀
氨氯地平等二氢吡啶类钙通道阻滞剂扩张小动脉,使毛细血管压力升高,引起外周水肿、面部潮红和头痛。干咳是 ACE 抑制剂的典型副作用,哮鸣音则见于哮喘患者使用非选择性 β 受体阻滞剂时。
答案: C · 阻断了两条通路,保护支架,但出血风险增加
双联抗血小板治疗(阿司匹林加氯吡格雷、替格瑞洛或普拉格雷等 P2Y₁₂ 抑制剂)可减少复发事件和支架血栓,通常持续最长 12 个月。它会增加出血风险,没有心脏科建议不得提前停药,尤其是在支架术后。
答案: B · 低血压、脉搏缓慢、皮肤温暖干燥
神经源性休克见于 T6 或以上水平的损伤。交感张力丧失引起血管扩张(皮肤温暖干燥)和迷走神经活动失去对抗(心动过缓)。低血容量性休克引起心动过速和皮肤湿冷;创伤患者可能两者都有,因此仍需寻找出血。
答案: D · Stop the test and inform the doctor
In DI, the patient keeps passing dilute urine despite fluid restriction and can become dangerously dehydrated. Significant weight loss, hypotension or a high sodium are reasons to stop the test and get medical review.
答案: C · 减少钠水潴留并控制腹水
在肝硬化中,继发性醛固酮增多症引起钠水潴留。限钠和醛固酮拮抗剂螺内酯(常与袢利尿剂联用)可减少腹水。螺内酯可引起高钾血症和男性乳房发育。
答案: D · Report it, as the regular background dose may need review
Regular need for breakthrough doses usually means the background analgesia is inadequate. The prescriber reviews and may adjust the regular dose, while side effects such as sedation are monitored.
答案: D · Caffeine citrate
Apnoea of prematurity results from an immature respiratory centre. Caffeine citrate stimulates breathing and reduces apnoea episodes. Gentle stimulation is used during an episode.
答案: D · "On hot days I should give my baby extra water between feeds."
Exclusively breastfed babies under 6 months do not need extra water, even in hot weather; more frequent feeds meet their needs. Water can fill the stomach and reduce milk intake.
答案: A · A soft toothbrush or sponge, bland rinses and soft, cool foods
Gentle cleaning with a soft brush or sponge, regular saline or bland rinses, analgesia and soft, cool, non-acidic foods protect the mouth. Alcohol mouthwashes and lemon–glycerine swabs dry and irritate the mucosa.
答案: A · Bronchodilators or corticosteroids
Guidelines advise supportive care for bronchiolitis: oxygen when needed, fluids or feeding support and suction of blocked noses. Bronchodilators, steroids and antibiotics have not been shown to help typical cases and are not routinely used.
答案: B · 约 2 至 4 天(48 至 96 小时)
典型的时间:震颤和焦虑从约 6–24 小时开始,戒断性惊厥从约 12–48 小时开始,震颤谵妄从约 48–96 小时开始。时间因人而异。
答案: B · Walk with him, acknowledge his concern and gently redirect him to an activity
Wandering often has a reason, such as a past routine, boredom or a physical need. Redirection, meaningful activity and a safe environment are preferred over restraint, which increases agitation and the risk of injury.
答案: x = 39.9 kg
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: t = 795 min
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 6.4 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: R = 12.5 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 240 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: t = 15 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 23.6 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 3.4 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 1.44 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 7 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 13:00 输完。
答案: B = 14
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 高
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
临床上还应检查预期代偿:按温特公式,预期 PaCO₂ 为 21–25 mmHg,所以实测 18 mmHg 提示合并呼吸性碱中毒(混合性紊乱)。上面的答案是按 ROME 法的考试分类。
答案: PaCO₂ = 51.8 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: 心房扑动,2:1 传导
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 二度 I 型房室传导阻滞(文氏现象)
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
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