感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
What is the purpose of a negative-pressure isolation room?
A toddler is brought in with bruises on both cheeks and the parent's explanation does not fit the injuries. What should the nurse do?
Which part of a sterile surgical gown is considered sterile once it is on?
Minutes after the first IV dose of an antibiotic starts, the patient develops wheezing, hives and low blood pressure. What should the nurse do first?
A patient receiving chemotherapy has a temperature of 38.3 °C and a very low neutrophil count. What should the nurse do?
An RN sees an LPN/LVN crushing an extended-release metoprolol tablet to mix with applesauce. What should the RN do?
Which features suggest Cushing's syndrome?
An older man has sudden severe abdominal and back pain, is hypotensive and has a pulsating mass in the abdomen. What should be suspected?
A patient has burning on urination and frequency. The dipstick is positive for nitrites and leukocyte esterase, and a urine culture is ordered. When should the sample be taken?
一名服用阿哌沙班的患者问,为什么他不需要像服用华法林的邻居那样定期做 INR 检查。最好的解释是什么?
Why is hypovolaemia corrected with IV fluids before or while starting a vasopressor?
Which heart failure drug improves symptoms and reduces hospital admissions but has not been shown to reduce mortality?
Why is a beta-blocker started at a low dose and increased slowly in heart failure?
一名昨天开始服用 ACE 抑制剂的患者出现嘴唇和舌头肿胀以及声音嘶哑。护士首先应做什么?
一名高血压难以控制、血钾持续偏低的患者,未使用利尿剂。应考虑哪种疾病?
During a water deprivation test for suspected diabetes insipidus, the patient loses more than 3% of body weight and becomes hypotensive. What should the nurse do?
Which statement about moist wound healing is correct?
Four patients from a house fire arrive in the emergency department. Which should the nurse assess first?
用于产后出血的甲麦角新碱(methylergometrine)不应给予哪类女性?
A woman who had a placenta praevia and two previous caesareans is scheduled for a caesarean. The team plans for possible hysterectomy and blood products. Why?
Which finding at a 2-year check most needs a speech and language referral?
一名学龄儿童因 ADHD 服用哌甲酯。哪项指导要点最重要?
Which side effects are most common with quetiapine?
A patient on suicide precautions asks for his razor to shave. What is the most appropriate response?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 09:50(24 小时制)。哪个条目是 12 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液½ tsp,每 12 小时一次,共 14 天。混悬液每瓶 50 mL。按1 tsp = 5 mL,必须提供多少整瓶N才能完成疗程?
一名体重 20 kg 的儿童按 3 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 10 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一名患者身高 141 cm,体重 50 kg。医嘱为 135 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
用滴系数为 10 滴/mL 的输液器在 4 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一组输液以 50 滴/分的速度经 20 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 300 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 25 000 单位,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 14 units/kg/h,患者体重 74 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dopamine 400 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 22 mL/h 输注。患者体重 80 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 17:00 开始以 75 mL/h 输注。4 小时后速率改为 125 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 18 次/分,SpO₂ 97%正在补充吸氧,血压 150/90 mmHg,脉搏 76 次/分,清醒,体温 37.8 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 107 kg,身高 193 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
某练习血气显示 PaCO₂ 54 mmHg (7.2 kPa)。利用规则:在急性呼吸性酸中毒中,PaCO₂ 每比 40 高出 10 mmHg,HCO₃⁻ 升高 1 mmol/L,以HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L 为起点,求预期HCO₃⁻。
练习数值:Na⁺ 139,Cl⁻ 108,HCO₃⁻ 11 mmol/L,白蛋白 37 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
这条 II 导联心电图条带显示窦性心律伴一次停顿。测量 停顿,即跨越停顿的 R–R 间期,单位为秒。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房与心室之间存在传导问题。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
答案: C · Air flows into the room, so airborne particles do not escape into the corridor
Negative pressure draws air into the room and out through filtered exhaust. It is used for airborne infections such as tuberculosis; positive pressure is used to protect patients with very weak immunity.
答案: C · Document accurately and follow the child safeguarding procedure
Injuries that do not match the explanation are a warning sign. The nurse records facts, not opinions, and refers through safeguarding procedures without confronting the family.
答案: D · The front from chest to the level of the sterile field, and the sleeves
Only the front of the gown from chest to the level of the sterile field and the sleeves from above the elbow to the cuffs are sterile. The back, the neckline and anything below the sterile field are non-sterile.
答案: C · Stop the infusion
These are signs of anaphylaxis. The nurse stops the infusion at once, calls for help and supports the airway, and intramuscular epinephrine (adrenaline) is the first-line treatment. Documentation comes later.
答案: D · Report it at once, because cultures and antibiotics are needed quickly
Neutropenic fever is a medical emergency. The patient may have few other signs of infection, so the nurse reports it immediately so that cultures can be taken and IV antibiotics started.
答案: A · Stop the LPN/LVN and contact the prescriber or pharmacist about another form
Crushing an extended-release tablet releases the whole dose at once and can cause toxicity, such as severe bradycardia or hypotension. The RN steps in now and arranges a suitable form.
答案: A · Weight gain around the trunk, a rounded face and thin, easily bruised skin
Excess cortisol causes central obesity, a moon face, thin skin, purple striae, muscle weakness and high glucose. The other options describe hyperthyroidism, Addison's disease and acromegaly.
答案: A · A ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm
A ruptured AAA classically presents with pain, shock and a pulsatile mass. It is a surgical emergency needing immediate senior help and transfer to theatre.
答案: A · Before the first dose of antibiotic
The culture sample is taken before antibiotics, so the organism can be grown and its sensitivities tested. A sample taken after antibiotics may give a false negative culture.
答案: D · 它的作用可预测,所以不需要常规凝血检查
阿哌沙班等直接口服抗凝药在固定剂量下作用可预测,因此不需要常规 INR 检测。应监测肾功能和肝功能、依从性以及出血征象,而 INR 不能可靠地反映其作用。
答案: B · Vasopressors cannot keep perfusion up if the circulation is under-filled
Vasoconstriction without adequate volume reduces organ blood flow and can cause ischaemia. Fluid resuscitation restores preload, and vasopressors are then used for persistent hypotension.
答案: B · Digoxin
ACE inhibitors (or ARBs/ARNI), beta blockers, mineralocorticoid antagonists and SGLT2 inhibitors reduce mortality in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. Digoxin improves symptoms and reduces admissions without reducing mortality.
答案: D · It can briefly worsen symptoms before long-term benefit appears
Beta-blockers improve survival in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction, but they can cause tiredness, low blood pressure, bradycardia and fluid retention when first started. They are therefore started low and increased gradually in stable patients, with monitoring of weight, pulse and BP.
答案: B · 评估气道,呼叫紧急援助,并暂停后续剂量
血管性水肿是 ACE 抑制剂罕见但可能危及生命的反应,由缓激肽蓄积引起。优先处理气道受损:呼叫紧急援助,密切监测气道和呼吸,并永久停药。即使用药多年后也可能发生。
答案: D · 原发性醛固酮增多症(Conn 综合征)
醛固酮过多导致钠水潴留(高血压)和钾丢失(低钾血症)。原发性醛固酮增多症是高血压常见的继发原因,通过醛固酮/肾素比值筛查。Addison 病的表现则相反。
答案: B · Stop the test and inform the doctor
In DI, the patient keeps passing dilute urine despite fluid restriction and can become dangerously dehydrated. Significant weight loss, hypotension or a high sodium are reasons to stop the test and get medical review.
答案: A · A moist, not wet, wound bed helps cells move and heal faster
A moist environment supports cell migration, autolytic debridement and less pain. Too much moisture causes maceration, so dressings are chosen to balance exudate.
答案: D · Circumferential chest burns, with breathing becoming shallow and laboured
Circumferential full-thickness burns of the chest form rigid eschar that restricts chest expansion and can cause respiratory failure. This patient needs immediate breathing assessment, senior help and possibly urgent escharotomy. The others need care but are not immediately life-threatening.
答案: A · 高血压患者
麦角生物碱引起血管收缩,可使血压危险地升高,因此在高血压和子痫前期时应避免使用。哮喘患者应避免的药物是卡前列素。
答案: B · She is at high risk of placenta accreta spectrum
A placenta praevia overlying a previous caesarean scar greatly raises the risk of an abnormally adherent placenta. This can cause massive haemorrhage, so delivery is planned in a unit with blood bank support.
答案: A · The child is not yet combining any two words
By 2 years most children use at least about 50 words and combine two words. Not combining words at 2 years needs assessment, including a hearing test. Saying "no" and parallel play are normal toddler behaviour.
答案: A · 在早晨服药,并监测食欲、睡眠和生长
兴奋剂可降低食欲并引起失眠,因此应在一天中较早的时间给药。治疗期间需监测身高、体重、血压和心率。
答案: C · Sedation, dizziness when standing and weight gain
Quetiapine commonly causes drowsiness, orthostatic hypotension and metabolic effects. It has a lower risk of extrapyramidal effects and raised prolactin than many other antipsychotics.
答案: A · Follow policy, for example by supervising the shave or offering an electric razor
Patients at risk still need hygiene and dignity. Policies usually allow supervised use of sharps or safer alternatives, which balance safety with respect.
答案: 9:50 AM
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: N = 2
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 6 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: D = 188.9 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 21 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:21 滴/分。
答案: t = 2 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 20.7 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 7.3 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 350 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 5.6 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 5 h 36 min,所以袋子大约在 22:36 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 2
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 超重
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: HCO₃⁻ = 25.4 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: AGc = 20.75 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: 停顿 = 1.68 s
窄 QRS 心动过速与停顿:室上性心动过速(SVT)是规则的心动过速,约 150–250 次/分钟,QRS 波群较窄;P 波通常看不到,因为它们隐藏在 QRS 波群或 T 波中。成人静息时的窦性心动过速通常低于约 150 次/分钟,且每个 QRS 前都有可见的 P 波;伴 2:1 传导的心房扑动常在约 150 次/分钟,并显示锯齿波。窦性停搏是指窦房结暂时停止发放冲动:出现既无 P 波也无 QRS 的停顿,其长度不是 P–P 周期的整数倍(恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞)。
停顿中没有出现 P 波,且停顿不是 P–P 周期的整数倍:窦性停搏。恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞。
答案: 二度 I 型房室传导阻滞(文氏现象)
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
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