感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A catheterised patient has had no urine in the bag for two hours. What should the nurse check first?
一名正在静脉输液的老年患者出现气短,肺部有湿啰音,踝部肿胀。最可能的问题是什么?
During a surgical hand scrub, how are the hands held?
A nurse has weeping dermatitis on both hands. What is the most appropriate action?
A nurse teaches a patient about storing insulin at home. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A patient on a cardiac monitor suddenly becomes unresponsive, and the monitor shows ventricular fibrillation. What is the priority once help has been called?
一名 1 型糖尿病患者呕吐且进食很少。正确的患病期间(sick-day)建议是什么?
An older patient found on the floor after lying there for many hours has dark brown urine and a very high creatine kinase. What is the main risk?
Why is a blood β-hydroxybutyrate level often preferred to a urine ketone dipstick in DKA?
A health care worker's hepatitis B tests show: HBsAg negative, anti-HBs positive, anti-HBc positive. What does this mean?
ACE 抑制剂典型的常见副作用是什么?
In adult cardiac arrest with shock-refractory ventricular fibrillation, which antiarrhythmic is commonly given?
一名胸痛患者要求使用硝酸甘油(glyceryl trinitrate)。哪项信息意味着护士应暂停给药并联系开处方者?
A nurse has four cardiac patients. Which one should be seen first?
Why are insulin and glucose given together to treat hyperkalaemia?
A drowsy patient's glucose meter shows "HI". What should the nurse do?
Why might a patient's platelet count be monitored while they receive heparin?
Two days after surgery, a patient on regular ibuprofen has a low urine output and a rising creatinine, and intake has been poor. What should the nurse do?
A woman has painful haemorrhoids after a vaginal birth. Which measure is appropriate?
一名妊娠 33 周、阴道鲜红色出血的女性入院,怀疑前置胎盘。护士应对哪项医嘱提出质疑?
A 15-year-old seems very low in mood. Is it safe for the nurse to ask directly about suicidal thoughts?
一名患幽门狭窄的 5 周龄婴儿准备手术。血液检查显示低氯和代谢性碱中毒。手术前的优先事项是什么?
末次饮酒后,震颤谵妄最可能在何时开始?
A patient finds clothes in her wardrobe she does not remember buying, has gaps in her memory and is called by different names by people she does not know. Which condition is most likely?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 35.3 °C。用 °F = °C × 9/5 + 32 把它换算为华氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了2½ tsp / 止咳糖浆, 6 fl oz / 果汁, ½ 杯 / 茶, 4 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
某患者体重 45 kg,医嘱为单次给药 2 mg/kg。求剂量 D(mg)。
一名体重 14 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 15 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 125 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
滴注以 60 gtt/min 的速度通过滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器。患者在 4 小时内接受多少毫升 V?
100 mg 药物溶于 250 mL 的输液以 5 mL/h 运行。患者每分钟接受多少微克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 61 kg 的患者推注肝素 60 units/kg。药瓶规格为 1 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dobutamine 250 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 17 mL/h 输注。患者体重 54 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 57 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 50 mL/h 输注。到 18:00 时已输入 150 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 完全受限; 潮湿程度: 非常潮湿; 活动: 卧床不起; 活动能力: 完全不能活动; 营养: 非常差; 摩擦力和剪切力: 潜在问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 20 次/分,SpO₂ 96%正在补充吸氧,血压 136/82 mmHg,脉搏 40 次/分,清醒,体温 38.8 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.37,PaCO₂ 62 mmHg (8.3 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 35 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 36 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
测量这条 II 导联心电图上的QT 间期,以秒为单位。
这条 II 导联心电图显示二度房室传导阻滞 I 型(文氏现象)。测量未下传 P 波之前最后一个下传搏动的 PR 间期(即最长的 PR),以秒为单位。
答案: B · The tubing for kinks or blockage and where the bag is
Kinked or trapped tubing, a bag above bladder level or a blocked catheter are common causes. If these are fine, the patient is assessed for low output and the doctor informed.
答案: A · 液体超负荷
静脉治疗期间出现气短、湿啰音、呼吸频率增快和水肿提示液体超负荷。护士应视情况停止或减慢输液,让患者坐起并上报。
答案: A · Above the elbows, so water runs from the fingertips toward the elbows
After a surgical scrub, the hands are the cleanest area, so they are held above the elbows to let water drain away from them toward the less clean elbows.
答案: A · Avoid direct patient care and handling of equipment until it heals, and see occupational health
Weeping skin lesions increase the risk of passing organisms to patients and of the nurse picking up bloodborne pathogens. The nurse should avoid direct patient contact and handling of patient equipment until the condition is assessed and resolved.
答案: A · “I will keep my spare insulin in the freezer so it lasts longer.”
Freezing damages insulin, and frozen insulin should not be used. Unopened insulin is kept in the fridge, and heat and expired products are avoided.
答案: A · Defibrillate as soon as the defibrillator is available, with CPR until then
Ventricular fibrillation is a shockable cardiac arrest rhythm. Early defibrillation, with high-quality CPR until the shock is given, is the most important treatment.
答案: D · 不要停用胰岛素;更频繁地检测血糖和酮体
1 型糖尿病患者停用胰岛素可迅速导致 DKA。患者应继续使用胰岛素,监测血糖和酮体,多饮水,若酮体升高应寻求帮助。
答案: B · Acute kidney injury from rhabdomyolysis
Prolonged pressure on muscles causes rhabdomyolysis, releasing myoglobin and potassium. Myoglobin can block kidney tubules; treatment includes IV fluids and close monitoring of urine output and electrolytes.
答案: C · It measures the main ketone in DKA, and the dipstick may miss it
In DKA, β-hydroxybutyrate is the main ketone, but most urine dipsticks detect acetoacetate, so they can underestimate ketosis. Blood β-hydroxybutyrate gives a current value that is also useful to monitor recovery.核对依据: Diabetic ketoacidosis - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: B · Past infection that has resolved, with immunity
The vaccine contains only surface antigen, so vaccination produces anti-HBs alone. A positive anti-HBc shows past or current infection; with HBsAg negative and anti-HBs positive, the infection has cleared and the person is immune.核对依据: Hepatitis Testing · MedlinePlus (NIH)
答案: A · 干咳
ACE 也会降解缓激肽。抑制该酶后,缓激肽在气道中蓄积,部分患者会出现持续干咳。
答案: C · Amiodarone
Amiodarone is used for VF or pulseless VT that persists after shocks, with lidocaine as an alternative. Adenosine, digoxin and verapamil have no role in VF.
答案: B · 患者今天早些时候服用了西地那非
西地那非(约 24 小时内)或他达拉非(约 48 小时内)等 5 型磷酸二酯酶抑制剂与硝酸酯类合用可引起严重、危及生命的低血压。收缩压低于约 90 mmHg 时也应避免使用硝酸酯类。
答案: A · A patient with angina whose chest pain has not eased with rest and who is sweating
Chest pain that does not settle with rest, especially with sweating, suggests an acute coronary syndrome and needs immediate assessment and a 12-lead ECG. A controlled heart rate in AF, a very small weight change and a question about eating are not urgent.
答案: D · Insulin moves potassium into cells; glucose prevents a hypo
Insulin activates the sodium–potassium pump, moving potassium into cells and lowering the serum level within about 15–30 minutes. Glucose is given to prevent hypoglycaemia. The effect is temporary, so potassium must also be removed.
答案: A · Treat it as very high, check ketones and escalate
"HI" means the glucose is above the meter's upper range. In a drowsy patient this may be DKA or HHS. A laboratory glucose, ketones, observations and urgent medical review are needed.
答案: C · To detect heparin-induced thrombocytopenia
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia is an immune reaction, usually 5–10 days after starting heparin, that lowers platelets and paradoxically causes thrombosis. Monitoring depends on risk and local policy.
答案: C · Withhold the next dose and report to the prescriber
NSAIDs can cause acute kidney injury, particularly with hypovolaemia, older age or other nephrotoxic drugs. The nurse withholds and reports, and fluid status and other analgesia are reviewed.
答案: D · Sitz baths, cold pads and stool softeners
Sitz baths, cold or witch hazel pads, topical treatments, fluids, fibre and stool softeners reduce pain and prevent constipation and straining.
答案: C · 进行宫颈指诊以评估扩张程度
在超声排除前置胎盘之前应避免阴道指诊,因为它可能引发严重出血。其他医嘱都是合适的。
答案: C · Yes; asking directly does not increase the risk and helps find those who need help
Asking clearly and calmly about suicidal thoughts does not increase risk and often brings relief. It allows the nurse to assess risk, keep the young person safe and refer for mental health support.
答案: B · 按处方静脉补液,纠正脱水和电解质失衡
反复呕吐导致脱水以及低氯性、低钾性代谢性碱中毒。应首先纠正这些问题,因为在液体和电解质恢复正常之前麻醉不安全。幽门肌切开术不是急诊手术。
答案: D · 约 2 至 4 天(48 至 96 小时)
典型的时间:震颤和焦虑从约 6–24 小时开始,戒断性惊厥从约 12–48 小时开始,震颤谵妄从约 48–96 小时开始。时间因人而异。
答案: B · Dissociative identity disorder
Dissociative identity disorder involves two or more distinct personality states with recurrent gaps in memory. It is strongly linked to severe, repeated trauma in childhood. It is different from schizophrenia, which is a psychotic disorder.
答案: T = 95.5 °F
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 372.5 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 90 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 8.4 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 240 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: D = 33.33 mcg/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: V = 3.7 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 5.2 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 1.02 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 7 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 01:00 输完。
答案: B = 8
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 中
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: PaCO₂ = 46.2 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: QT = 0.44 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
粗略的规则:在正常心率下,QT 应小于 R–R 间期的一半(此处 R–R = 0.84 s)。
答案: 最长的 PR = 0.36 s
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
PR 最大的增幅出现在一组的第一个和第二个搏动之间;之后的增幅较小,这就是暂停之前 R–R 间期缩短的原因。
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